Religion and Theology

Phase one 1750-1200
This period saw the Vedas (ancient Hindu scriptures) compiled (Hopfe, 2009, p. 77), the development of belief in Shang-Li (supreme deity) in China (p. 179), the setting down of the basic texts of Zoroastrianism (p. 234) and the compilation of the Jewish Torah (p. 253). Historical details are vague. No names are associated with the origin of the four Vedas, although Vyasa, a somewhat mythical figure, is said to have arranged them (Holdrege, 1996, p. 249). Scholars believe that migrant Aryans entered India between 1750 and 1200 BCE (p. 82), taking with them stories about gods, later set down in the Vedas. Similarity between this material and ancient Iranian religion suggests a link with the Gathas (ancient texts) of Zoroastrianism the gathas indicate that the Aryans were nature worshippers who venerated a series of deities. Many are also mentioned in the Indian Vedic literature (Hopfe, p. 235).

The Vedas set down practices and systems that endured. For example, belief that chaos preceded the world, from which order or dharma was established social division - into four classes, arising from the sacrifice of primordial man (Purusha) (p. 90) four stages in life (p. 92) four goals in life duties and responsibilities. They hinted at a supreme reality but offered no definite understanding of the relationship between that reality and human life. The Brahman priests must perform sacrifices to help sustain the universe, which keeps chaos in check. Individuals must fulfill their dharmic duties. The most ancient Jewish scripture, the Torah, dates from about 1200 BCE, corresponding to a commonly accepted date for the setting down of the Vedas.

The Torah is linked with the story of Moses, who led his people out of slavery in Egypt - the event known as the Exodus (traditional date 1312). However, it was Abraham (traditional date, 1812 BCE) with whom G-d had entered a special relationship (covenant), promising to bless his heirs if they worshipped no other Gods. This is linked with monotheism. It was in the Torah given to Moses that the details of the Law, which Abrahams heirs must keep, were given. Obedience and faithfulness to G-d emerged as central precepts. The Torah is the book to which Jews (Abrahams heirs) still look for inspiration and guidance (Hopfe, p. 258). The prophet Zarathustra may have lived as early as 1600. He set down 17 hymns known as the Gathas, which have parallel content in the Vedas. However, the Vedas did not articulate a sophisticated view of the Ultimate Reality, the Gathas established a dualist doctrine positing rival good and evil powers. One of Zarathustras unique contributions (p. 251), this solves for some the problem of evils origin. This differed from the idea of a single originator of life found in the Torah, the Vedas as well as in a later text such as the Quran but has a parallel in early Chinese belief in Shang Ti, dated from the Chou dynasty in the eleventh century (Hopfe, p. 180). Chinese still believed in many deities but saw Shanag Ti as supreme. These religions all developed ideas about how the truth contained in scriptures represent revelation or communication from the Absolute, to humanity. The Torah, the Vedas and the Gathas were not composed by people but revealed, although scholars posit long, complex editorial processes involving many human actors.

Phase Two 9th to 6th centuries
This phase saw a consolidation of classical tradition. In China, two distinct traditions, Taoism and Confucianism emerged. In India, philosophical reflection began, later resulting in numerous sub-traditions. In Judaism, the community took shape as notions about divine-human relationship become more sophisticated. The great prophets and wisdom literature elaborated on G-ds nature, and on moral standards. Under their leader, Abrahams heirs settled as citizens in the land that G-d originally gave Abraham, which split into two kingdoms. The great theme was justice unless justice was upheld, G-d would punish G-ds people Stated abstractly, the Prophetic principle can be put as follows The prerequisite of political stability is social justice, for it is in the nature of things that injustice will not endure (Smith, 1961, p. 292). When the people failed to uphold justice, they were punished through conquest and exile. In 537 BCE, some Jews were allowed to return to their former capital, Jerusalem to rebuild the Temple that had been destroyed in 586BCE. Jewish scriptures contain little reflection on individual fate, focusing on obedience and morality in this life. After death, Jews thought souls lived for a while in a realm called Sheol, then gradually fade into nothingness.

In contrast, Zoroastrianism, then the established religion in Iran, developed belief in resurrection of the dead and in judgment between good and evil. These notions impacted Jewish thought and subsequent Jewish writing (Hopfe, p. 241). Aryans settled in India developed another view, reincarnation. The vague Ultimate Reality of the Vedas became Brahman, the world soul from which all that is emanates, pervading all existence. Within all sentient forms, Brahman exists as the atman. Like Brahman, the atman is eternal. The Upanishads, written down in this phase, saw the soul as part of Brahman. The goal of spiritual life is to realize the true nature of self, so that the atman re-unites with Brahman, and the endless cycle of birth, death and rebirth within Samsara ends. The Vedas were breathed out by the Ultimate, containing in embryo all knowledge (Veda  knowledge). While numerous deities feature in the Vedas, these are now represented as different manifestations of what is ultimately above form, Brahman.

While Jews were developing ideas about G-d as knowable and personal, in India the Ultimate was increasingly perceived as trans-personal. A similar notion developed in China, the concept of the Dao. Confucius (as he is known in the West) and Lau-Tzu both recognized the Dao as the source of their own teaching. The singular Dao becomes Yin and Yang, feminine and male principles. Balance is needed to maintain universal order. Both men also spoke about upholding tradition, especially filial piety and reference of ancestors. Confucius wanted a strong, united China, led by an emperor who set a moral example. Lau-Tzu wanted people to develop their own morality, with less or no government oversight. However, like Judaism, the main concern was social harmony, not individual salvation. Individual salvation  escaping from Samsara  was the Hindu goal.

Third Phase  reform 6th Century BCE to 2nd Century CE.
Not everyone in India found the trans-personal Brahman concept useful. Some wanted a more intimate relationship with the Ultimate. This emerged in the Bhakti traditions, associated with the Puranic scriptures, veneration of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva and their saktas (female partners). Loving devotion of a personal God (who manifests Brahman) attracts divine grace, release from Samsara. Buddhism began as an alternative to this tradition, which sees atman (soul) and Brahman (universal soul) as essentially the same. Taught by Gautama (480-405 BCE), what became Buddhism denied that atman and Brahman exist, teaching that false attachment keeps people within Samsara. Letting go on self, of desire leads to nirvana, to higher knowledge or enlightenment (Hopfe, p. 140).

Buddhism itself splintered into schools Theravada sees itself as close to Buddhas original teaching Mahayana describes itself as the greater vessel, based on Buddhas secret teaching. Perhaps influenced by Hindu bhakti, cosmic beings known as Bodhisattvas play significant roles, gifting grace to devotees, speeding up their enlightenment. In the Jain tradition, taught by Mahavira (599-527 BCE) almost the opposite belief emerged  that the atman is eternal but unique and infinite, thus the goal is not union with Brahmans but autonomy.

Judaism saw a multiplicity of schools emerge during this period, when the Jews homeland was occupied by various foreign powers. After the Romans destroyed the second Temple (70CE), most Jews were forced to flee, settling in Diaspora. Already, development of the Synagogue as places for Torah study provided a substitute for the Temple (and sacrifices), while new texts (Mishnah, Talmud) changed the focus from ritual to moral living, always a central concern but ritual had often dominated. Christianity, based on the teachings of a first century Jew called Jesus, took Jewish ideas about One God demanding obedience, then said that this represented a faith that all people could embrace, regardless of race or ancestry. Jews continued to see themselves as a distinct nation, although they lacked a state until 1948, when Israel was created. Christians also believe that Jesus death represented a sacrifice to redeem people from sin, a concept that Jews rejected. Jews also rejected the Christian claim that Jesus was Gods son. Later, another teacher, Muhammad (570-632  CE) preached Islam, that God requires moral conduct from all people, which is sufficient for salvation. He also rejected the need for Gods son to die. More so than Christianity, similar to Judaism, Islam sees life as a social-spiritual-political continuum, so has tried to establish political systems based on Muhammads teachings. The Quran, Islams scripture, was revealed. Sunni (85) appoint any pious person as leader. Shia recognize only the authority of male heirs of Muhammad, otherwise there is little difference in practice or belief.

Final Phase Modernity.
Responding to modernity, religions developed new schools. Christianity, through the Protestant reformation in the sixteenth century, anticipated the shift from doctrine to personal faith, downplaying the role of priests and official doctrine within the Catholic form of the tradition, stressing personal relationship with God. Judaism followed, with Reform (early nineteenth century), stressing Jews as loyal citizens of whatever state they lived in rather than as a distinct nation, contributing to human progress and welfare. Hindu reform, largely reacting to Christian criticism, emphasized the Oneness of the Ultimate, made less use of images. Opening membership to non-Indians, they became popular in the West, stressing spiritual not material wealth and Hinduisms universal aspects, rather as Christianity took up Judaisms universal values. Buddhism also finds a welcome in the West. Of the religions discussed, Zoroastrianism (displaced in Iran by Shia Islam) and Jainism are the smallest, Islam and Christianity the largest. None show signs of rapid decline. More people practice eclectic spirituality, borrowing from several religions, as Chinese and Japanese have done for centuries. Despite years of officially atheist government in China, religious belief persists, although its position is precarious (Hopfe, p. 203). Islam is growing in parts of the world (p. 372).

Modern Muslim movements attempt to reformulate Islam to meet contemporary needs, often focusing on creating authentic Muslim systems and states. 57 states are majority Muslims. Traditional Christian denominations are declining. Others are growing. Religions show a tenacious tendency to develop, adapting in response to human questions, needs and contexts.