Religion and Theology

There is a growing concern of ecological crisis due to detrimental activities of mankind, which has uprooted trees, caused soil erosion, polluted the groundwater and rivers through toxic discharge of industrial chemicals, and made the ambient air unfit for hygienic living. As a result of deforestation, the ecological balance has been disturbed, thereby, leading to extinction of species from the forests and the danger of global warming. Moreover, the wars that have been fought on planet Earth have caused significant loss to the environment (World Wildlife Fund, n.d.). Similarly, the groundwater gets polluted when landmines are used and nuclear explosions are carried out by the nations worldwide to test the technological advances in warfare. Besides, the impact of emissions from the industrial chimneys and the vehicles has contributed to the air pollution, which causes allergies and several respiratory diseases, such as asthma, eosinophilia, and lung cancer. The combined effect of these eco-destructive activities by the people has resulted in climate change and global warming, which has caused increase in temperature, melting of glaciers, and rise in sea levels. Based on the data of the Environmental Protection Agency, it was reported that the sea-levels in the US had risen by 25 to 30 centimeters over the past century (University of Wisconsin, 1999). The knowledge of religion, especially, the karmic philosophy of Hinduism and Buddhism can be utilized to purify the mind and check ecological crisis. However, it is pathetic to realize that some religious traditions and rituals also lead to contamination of rivers and ambient air. For instance, the Hindus cremate the dead bodies in open air and disperse the ashes of dead bodies into the rivers because of superstitious beliefs. Hence, religion must be used to explain the causes of ecological crisis and devise effective strategies for solving it, rather than worsening the ecological imbalance.

The Buddhist Hindu Belief of Karma
All living creatures, including human beings, have to face the consequences of their actions. These actions are also known as karma, which is derived from the word karman in Sanskrit language (Ross, 2000). Religion emphasizes good moral conduct for achieving happiness, success, satisfaction, and prosperity in life. Hinduism and Buddhism regard bad karma as the root cause of crisis in a humans life. According to the Hindu belief of Karma, a person gets rewards if the past actions were good, and the person gets punishment if the past actions were bad (Jayaram, n.d.). Similarly, Buddhism uses the philosophy of karma for explaining the discrepancies in the standards of living of people on planet Earth (Sayadaw, n.d.). When Mahatma Buddha attained enlightenment, he concluded that the chief cause of differences among the people for being rich or poor, healthy or diseased, and weak or powerful was the difference in the karma of those people. If some people are born blind, then the cause is the bad karma in their past birth if some people are criminals, then the cause is the bad karma in their previous birth if some humans are rich, then the cause is their good karma performed in the past birth if some individuals are endowed with good health, wealth, and power, then the root cause is the good karma done in the previous birth. Hinduism also uses the law of karma to justify the differences in the standards of living of people as well as the countries. Moreover, the natural disasters, such as hurricanes, typhoons, tsunamis, earthquakes, volcanoes, and global warming can be attributed to the karma performed by the people living in those affected areas. Destiny brings the people with bad karmic record into the zone with imminent natural disaster that claims the lives of people, including children, youth, and elderly. Likewise, global warming and a rise in temperature can be witnessed in some Asian and African countries where economic development is low and crime rate is high. It is because of the bad karma of the people living in these nations.

The Law of Karma and Ecological Crisis
The Earth is witnessing pollution and global warming due to the detrimental activities performed by the people. For instance, people are throwing industrial waste into the rivers that is a source of drinking water. According to the Hindu and the Buddhist philosophies of karma, the humans had performed a bad action (karma) by throwing the toxic industrial waste in the river. As a result of their bad karma, a bad effect was produced that polluted the river water and made it unfit for human consumption. The effect is realized when untreated water is consumed by ignorant people who catch fatal gastric diseases, such as cholera, typhoid, and gastroenteritis. Similarly, it can be noticed that there is an increase in air pollution due to a rise in the poisonous gases, such as sulphur dioxide and nitrous oxide, which are emitted from the vehicles. The atmosphere is polluted with unhealthy smog that is the source to respiratory allergies and diseases. When people report breathing problems, they forget that the root cause of their suffering is their own actions (karma), which they had performed by emitting fumes of toxic gases from their vehicles. Nobody can evade the law of karma and its consequences.

As a result of a rise in the greenhouse gases emitted by factories and vehicles, there is a rise in the temperature of atmosphere, which is causing global warming and climate change. Who performed the evil karma of emitting the gases in the air Who faced the evil consequences of the karma It was the people who had performed the evil karma, and it was the same people who had to face the evil consequences of their own karma. In 2007, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) forecast that the Arctic might be free of summer sea ice by as early as 2100. It is now apparent that summer sea ice will disappear within five years. (Loy and Stanley, n.d.). Isnt that alarming for us to follow the law of good karma and protect our environment by refraining from eco-destructive activities. Similarly, it was reported that the glaciers in the Himalayan region may vanish by the year 2035 (Loy and Stanley, n.d.). When the snow from these glaciers would finally melt due to the phenomenon of global warming, there would be a rise in the sea-levels, which could lead to devastating floods. Several towns may be completely swept away by these floods. In addition to the global warming, there is a fear of climate change that would lead to extinction of species of the plant and the animal kingdoms (Loy and Stanley, n.d.). Since all living creatures have their natural habitat that is appropriate for survival, any significant rise in the temperature would change the climate and the habitat. For instance, if the temperature of a forest rises by a few degrees, the plants and animals in the forest may gradually die of hyperthermia and accompanying diseases.

Similarly, it can be seen that the temperature in some cities has touched 50 degrees Celsius, and people living in these places are dying because of intense heat, poor metabolism, and deadly diseases. The lives of plants, animals, and humans have been jeopardized by climate change and global warming. It was highlighted that only the Buddhist philosophy of karma can save the planet Earth from an ecological disaster that can happen anytime (Loy and Stanley, n.d.). This ecological disaster has been triggered by the manmade activities, and hence, these evil deeds of mankind must be stopped to save Earth and its inhabitants. How can the disastrous deeds of some people be stopped for preventing an ecological catastrophe Since science and technology have caused these environmentally destructive activities, the solution cannot be completely entrusted upon the scientists, engineers, and politicians. The only possible solution is to understand the law of karma preached by Buddhist and Hindu scholars who live a virtuous life by purifying the mind (Fundamental Buddhism, n.d.). It is important for the people to seek enlightenment by following the teachings of Buddhism and Hinduism, which clearly mention that ones karma is the cause of current effect.

Spiritual Awareness for Preventing Ecological Crisis
The Buddhist and Hindu teachings encourage the human beings to follow the noble path of virtuosity and good conduct. These religions emphasize the truth that by performing good actions (karma), an individual reaps good rewards, while by doing bad actions (karma), an individual gets bad results. As discussed earlier, ecological crisis is the result of bad actions (karma) of the human beings. Since the physical and the mental actions are performed by the mind under the influence of the intellect and metaphysical entity called spirit, the humans must endeavor to elevate their thinking through practice of spirituality. Global warming and climate change can be checked by checking the eco-destructive thinking and actions of the human beings. Some industrialists dispose off their toxic wastes in the river streams because they are not spiritually awakened and are totally bound by their greedy intentions. Had these people used their decision making authority under the guidance of holy spirit, just like Buddhist monks and Hindu saints, they would have made efforts to discard the toxic waste after proper treatment.

Similarly, spiritually awakened industrialists can help in preserving the purity of air by discharging only the treated air into the atmosphere from their chimneys. If every human being starts using the automobile fuel wisely, then there would be lesser emissions into the ambient air. The only attribute that is missing in the contemporary human beings is the will to pursue a virtuous life based on spirituality. The humanity needs to curtail its excessive consumption of natural resources by reducing, reusing, and recycling them whenever possible. The karma of global warming is not nature turning against us- we have turned against ourselves. We are doing something hostile to nature. (Eco-Buddhism, n.d.). Buddhist and Hindu teachings encourage the humanity to overcome ignorance by practicing spirituality, which can definitely prevent an imminent ecological catastrophe.

Need to Check Eco-Destructive Religious Beliefs
Although the law of karma of Hinduism and Buddhism can be practiced for checking the contemporary ecological crisis, it needs to be asserted that an enlightened and spiritually awakened being must not practice eco-destructive activities that are strongly supported by some religions. For example, the Hindus cremate a dead body by piling it on wooden logs and burning the pyre in open air. Since this age-old ritual uses wood from cutting of trees in forests, it is not an eco-friendly practice. Moreover, the Hindus immerse the ashes of the dead body into the river, which causes pollution of river water. This river water is drunk by animals and people living near the river bed, and consequently, they fall victims to fatal waterborne diseases like cholera, gastroenteritis, and typhoid. Isnt the objective of religion to impart knowledge and wisdom to the ignorant population Dont these eco-destructive religious rituals pose a barrier between a learner and the religious teacher who preaches purity of mind, water, and air to the disciples The role of an enlightened spiritual teacher is to elevate the minds of the students and the entire Earthly population by encouraging them to stop the eco-destructive religious practice of immersing the ashes of dead bodies into the river stream. Furthermore, the religious teacher should advise the people to use electric crematorium for burning the dead bodies inside a closed chamber. In contrast to the ritual of cremating the dead body in open air, the electric cremation process does not use woods and does not pollute the ambient air. The spiritual teacher should always give top priority to preserving the purity of the environment instead of following the religious rituals that pollute the air and rivers. The law of karma applies to everybody, including the spiritual teacher as well as the religious priest, and hence, nobody should follow those rituals that involve cutting of trees, pollute the ambient air with greenhouse gases, and cause waterborne diseases through unhealthy discharge of toxic chemicals in the rivers.

Law of Karma as the Panacea to Solve the Ecological Crisis
Religions and theological societies have been functioning for several centuries with an objective to teach morality, good conduct, and social responsibility. All religions preach truth, non-violence, peaceful living, and unity among people from different nations, with different languages, and having contrasting beliefs. However, Hinduism and Buddhism preach the law of karma as the decisive factor that explains the inequality among the people and nations. In simple terms, a good action brings good results, while a bad action brings bad results. If the ignorant human beings are taught and reminded of the law of karma with special reference to ecological degradation, they will stop abusing the natural resources. They will make all efforts to minimize their wastage and use only the necessary resources in required quantity. There are countries that face famine and drought due to the shortage of food and water respectively. Moreover, in case of natural disasters like earthquakes, hurricanes, floods, and typhoons, there is scarcity of food and water in the affected areas. The people across the world must be made aware that they can also become victims of such calamities if they continue to misuse the natural resources and indulge in eco-destructive activities. If they do not check the toxic emission from their vehicles and industries, they can become victims of respiratory diseases like lung cancer. Similarly, if they continue to pollute the rivers with industrial waste, they can become victims of fatal gastric diseases. It is the law of karma that guides their destiny. If they live like good citizens by checking pollution of air and water, then they will also reap the benefits of living in a clean environment. When they check the emission of greenhouse gases, global warming and climate change can also be curtailed. It is the law of karma that can act as a panacea for the contemporary ecological crisis. Hence, spiritual awakening and karmic philosophy of Hinduism and Buddhism can help the technology to develop without harming the environment.

Jainism is an ancient branch of Hinduism which rejects the existence of a God and creation but advocates a deep respect and compassion for every living thing. Those who adhere to this way of life are called Jains. A well-known scholar of Jainism is Mahavira, who promotes a path of strict asceticism and ahimsa (non-violence) to all living beings as the means to real emancipation. What is Ahimsa

Ahimsa is a term in the Ancient Indian language gotten from the root words himsa which means violence and A which means not or negative. Therefore, if translated directly ahimsa means non-violence (A-himsa), and literally Ahimsa means evading violence.  Thus, Ahimsa may be defined as a practice of non-violence towards every living being or the act of evading violence (by every possible means) towards every being.

Notion of Ahimsa as it appears in Jainism.
The Ahimsa concept dates back to 800 B.C.E., it emerged from the all souls are equal doctrine which opines that everyone wants to live, nobody wants to die. Ahimsa is a principle that the Jains practices and preaches, it is the core of their religion. Ahimsa is not only directed towards all human being but towards everything in nature.

Thus, Ahimsa is the foundation of the Jain ethics or philosophy. In short, Jainism considers Ahimsa to be the absolute religion while himsa is considered to be source of all the evil and miseries in the world. It is therefore incumbent on every Jain to practice Ahimsa for their spiritual advancement.
The teaching of Ahimsa is not only limited to obvious physical acts of violence or wars but also to the violence in the minds and hearts of man, lack of concern and love for nature and fellow humans. Jains ancient text explains that the actual harm does not define violence as it may not be intentional. It states further that, it is the absence of empathy or compassion and an intention to harm that makes an action violent. That is, if there is no violent thought there could never be any violent action. The rigid emphasis of Jainism on Ahimsa makes the religion special and exclusive. In Jainism, Ahimsa is not seen as a mere human sympathy it is empathy i.e. an ability or the urge to identify oneself totally with someone elses or other living beings feelings or pains.

The values of the Jain religion
The values of Jain religion are based on five basic virtues in which Ahimsa is the first and foremost. It is also the core of their belief because every other virtue circles round it. Others virtues are commitment to truth, celibacy, non-proprietorship and non-stealing.

Practical consequences of Ahimsa on Jains
The philosophy of Ahimsa puts a restriction on the choice of professions of Jains, in that, Jains are not permitted to pursue any professions that involves killing, suffering or molestation of living things in any form. Examples of which are Farming, hunting, butchering.

Jains are known to always go out of their way to ensure that they clear away all living organisms that their own movement may endanger. Jains do not kill nor do they torment or overpower anyone or anything. Jains either wear a simple loin cloth or no clothes at all. They possess a non-violent reaction to every violent thought. They abstain from from hunting, meat eating, animal fights and every other practice in which animals are subjected to cruelty. They eat during the day and cover their mouth during the night to avoid unintentionally swallowing of insects or germs.

The practice of Ahimsa generally makes Jains compassionate toward every other being which makes them live an ascetic life, not hurting, harming or killing any living thing. The Practice of Ahimsa also makes them to have a deep respect and love for every being.

How Jains seek to protect all life
Jains seek to protect all lives by doing away with every action of violence towards other being, thus every action of a Jain is directed towards avoiding injury to all living organism, either through physical, mental or verbal violence as much as possible. They protect and preserve lives by ensuring the urge to identify oneself totally with other beings and the whole universe in general. In short, Jainism aims at the welfare of not only man alone but also all living beings.

Distinction between Jiva and Ajiva
Although, Jains do not believe in God but they believe that the purpose of life is to attain Kevala which means to bring back the grandeur of the soul. According to Jainism, there are two eternal principles of reality which are Jiva and Ajiva. Jiva refers to soul and consists of infinite identical spiritual units while Ajiva refers to matter in any form which includes time and space. A bound Jiva is linked with karmic forces since Jainism understands karmic force to be a matter while a liberated soul is pure, has peace coupled with a perfect knowledge. Jiva is usually described with mindfulness, life, immaterialness, and space extension. The size of the soul and the body it a Jiva occupies is believed to be the same. Both Ajiva and Jiva are everlasting they were not created neither were they born and will never stop existing. Jains believes that the whole world is filled with Jivas ensnared in Ajiva and that any contact between the two causes the Jiva to suffer, thus, every human being possesses jiva which suffers due to its contact with ajiva.

In conclusion, Jainism is a religion of universal love, friendliness and compassion. It teaches that every individual is indebted to the universal society of all beings. Thus, Jainism offers a far better alternative to Darwinian formula of survival of the fittest.

In Reaching Hispanics in North America Helping You Understand and Engage One of Gods
Greatest Mission Fields, published by North American Mission Board of the Southern Baptist Convention, the author(s) provide demographic profiles of potential Christians in North America, that is, the growing Hispanic community.  Unsurprisingly, there are plenty of statistics accompanying the demographic profile of this community.  By describing potential Christians among the Hispanics of North America thus, the author(s) have presented a study that can be used to reach out to the Hispanics.  The author(s) describe various features of this community, including its diversity, familial structures, and other personal and social relationships.  This research may not only be used by Christians who seek to deliver the Gospel to the Hispanic community, but also healthcare policymakers and marketers to boot.  After all, there are various entities apart from churches that seek to reach out to this community for its own purposes.
   
Author(s) of Reaching Hispanics in North America have further detailed how meaningful relationships can be built between churches and the Hispanic community in North America.  Such relationships can only be built if churches and ministers are respectful of the fact that the average Hispanic is deeply attached to his or her family.  The author(s) assume that it is essential to appreciate Hispanic psychology before the Gospel can be effectively delivered to the target community.  Clearly, D. N. Entwistle, author of Integrative approaches to Psychology and Christianity An Introduction to Worldview Issues, Philosophical Foundations, and Models of Integration, would agree with this viewpoint.  According to Entwistle, it is essential to appreciate both the Word of God through which Christian faith is birthed, and the works of God manifested as mankind on earth.  These works of God include the Hispanic community with its own set of psychological characteristics.  By increasing its understanding of these characteristics, the church would be integrating science and religion for the reason that God is the author of all truth.
   
Additionally, George Hunter, author of Radical Outreach The Recovery of Apostolic Ministry and Evangelism, would be appreciative of the effort expended to deliver the Gospel to the Hispanic community in North America.  Hunter advises the church of North America to reclaim its right to practically and actively reach out to those that are in need of the Gospel and yet do not approach the church.  The author asks some penetrating questions to point the way to the church.  First of all, what are the differences between the methods of outreach that the New Testament church used versus the methods of teaching that are used by contemporary churches  Certainly, the churches of old were far more successful in guiding people.  So, what was it that gave tremendous success to the early church versus the contemporary church  According to Hunter, the obvious reason for the success of the early church was that it actively reached out to people rather than waiting for the people to enter its walls.  And, the contemporary church that has realized its essential duty is one that forms an outreach ministry offering everything it possibly can to people in order to help, heal, and guide them by way of the Gospel.  
   
The author(s) of Reaching Hispanics in North America are cognizant of the fact that it is necessary to use Biblical examples to teach the modern church how to reach out to the Hispanics of North America.  According to their book, the Bible should be the foundation for every ministry, program, event, and activity that the church plans, promotes, and produces.  Thus, churches of North America that apply the models developed by the author(s) of Reaching Hispanics in North America can follow Hunters advice to boot.  Moreover, the fact that the author(s) of Reaching Hispanics in North America describe the diverse Hispanic community in depth must be appreciated for reasons apart from the ones that have already been explained.  Hunters arguments raise the following question What if Hispanics have previously refused to enter the walls of the church because most churches of North America do not even understand this community
   
Then again, it is not for us to judge whether or not members of the Hispanic community can be saved from eternal damnation even if they have never entered the church or heard the Gospel.  Osburn contends that people can be saved even if they have not heard the Gospel.  Just the same, it is most essential to believe in the right God before attaining eternal salvation.  Osburn explains that knowledge about the Creator of the universe may reach people through Scriptures if not the Gospel of the Christ.  Even those who have had contact with believers must have learned about the one true God without going to church.  What is more, as the God of mercy works in the hearts of mankind by way of His Spirit, knowledge about Him may reach people through visions as well.
   
By no means do Osburns arguments discount the importance of Reaching Hispanics in North America.  Furthermore, Osburns article makes it clear that Hunter should not consider it a failure of the modern-day church of North America if it appears to have failed to reach out to all people.  After all, the church continues to try to deliver Gods messages, and it never stops its efforts in this regard.  Reaching Hispanics in North America is just another step forward.  

Book is defined as a set or collection of written illustrated or blank sheets made of paper, parchment or various other materials, usually fastened together to a hinge at one side. There are various genres, fiction or nonfiction. During the ancient times the writings were written upon stone, clay, tree barks etc. Ancient Egyptians used to write on papyrus, a plant grown along the river Nile. Various scrolls, codex, bamboo books have emerged. All of which had a reason of letting people know about the information or for passing on a message for engraving the events which took place. Bible being known as the most powerful book having the entire humanity and the creation dealt in and made known, having the life as whole in it, is the one book of truth and Word of God.

BOOKS OF THE BIBLE
Bible with its books is composed of The Old Testament and the New Testament.
Historical editions of Bible were Biblical manuscripts and the Bible translations. Bible exists in multiple manuscripts and multiple canons.

The Old Testament composed of 39 book starting from Genesis to Malachi which has been written before the time of Jesus birth, during the 12th to 2nd century B.C. There are a number of books found in the Peshitta and Greek Septuagnit which are not found in Hebrew Bible, called as deuterocanonical books by Roman Catholics. The Old Testament gives out prophesies of Christ coming to the earth as our saviour.
 
The New Testament which was originally written in Greek, is made of 27 books from Matthews to Revelations, composed of 4 different genres of Gospels, Acts of Apostles, Epistles and Apostles.  Its give prophesies being fulfilled with Jesus Christ coming to the earth and saving humanity with His willing sacrifice.
 
Bible has a very significant history, it has everything in it, there is nothing the Bible doesnt have. Starting from the creation, how God has created the universe in 6 days to how the end of time would occur. God has provided His word through Bible as a means.

APOLOGETICS
People as before still refuse to believe in the Bible. Due to the many speculations arising because of their unbelief, the need for evidentialists arose.
 
Greek theologia was used with the meaning discourse on God. Roger Williams was an American Protestant Theologian, John Lowden Knight, Albert Boynton Storms are few of the famous theologians.  Christian Apologetics in the field of the Christian Theology aims to present a rational basis for Christian faith, defend the faith against objections and expose the perceive flaws of other world views.  Writers such as Augustine of Hippo and Thomas Aquinas and many as C.S. Lewis, Josh McDowell, William Lane Craig have based their defense of Christianity on favoring the historical evidences.
   
It is hard to pinpoint when the movement started but 1968 seems to be a reasonable date. During this year, two prize winning essays were written in Copenhagen one byNiels Peter Lemche, the other byHeike Ferris, which advocated a complete rethinking of the way we approach the Bible and attempt to draw historical conclusions from it

SUMMARY
C.S. Lewis in his work gave an outline of the Bible. During the old times people with their evil ways have departed away from God and began to sin, since no one was free form sin they couldnt deal with God directly. God had revealed Himself to people in the way that they can understand. To Abraham God said that he and his progeny would be called a means for saving all humanity. To this end, He gave the law to Moses. The resulting cycles went through sin and repentance yet the law could not save them. Jesus brought the perfect understanding of the law, love and salvation.  By His death and resurrection all who believe are saved and reconciled with God.

In Galatians 1 v 11, 12 Paul tells his first century readers
I want you to know, brothers, that the gospel I preached is not something
that man made up. I did not receive it from any man, nor was I taught itrather, I received it by revelation from Jesus Christ.

There is of course no book entitled  The Gospel of Paul . Nevertheless, Pauls writings, which take up a considerable part of the New Testament, are full of gospel in the sense of good news about Jesus Christ. Also available to us are his words as recorded  by Luke  in the Book of Acts. William Newell in his article  Paul s Gospel  names those he considers to be the greatest revealers of the truth of God   Moses in the Old Testament and Paul in the New Testament. Polycarp, a second century bishop, born at about the time of Paul s martyrdom, called him, as quoted by Roetzel (1991)  blessed and glorious . What Paul did was turn a message, that was Jewish in its idioms and concepts, into an understandable and attractive gospel for the Hellenistic world in which he moved.

The Gospel in His Letters
The letters are arranged in the main by order of size, not chronologically or in order of importance. That being said, Romans, the first, is important.  In it, much of the future doctrinal basis of the church down the ages can be found.

Right at the beginning of his letter to the Roman church, Paul tells them that he has been commissioned to preach the good news. The Bible, New International Version, uses the words, Set Apart for the Gospel  (Romans 1 v 1) so what was the gospel he taught What does he include He speaks in Romans 1 v 3, 4 of the Son of God, Jesus Christ.

What is this good news Romans 1 v 16, It is the power of God for the salvation of everyone who believes.

Who is it for Both Jews and Gentiles. The message of the gospel is for everyone, Romans 1 v 16. As he explains clearly in Romans 10 v 13, it is necessary to call upon the name of the Lord in order to be saved. He then explains (10 v 16, 17) that it is necessary for people to hear the message in order that they can believe. Paul was of course not the only person preaching about Jesus, but Paul s special mission is to those who have not heard   the Gentiles. Romans 15 v 9,  So that the Gentiles may glorify God for his mercy.

In 1 Corinthians, he again described the gospel. In 1 Cor 1 v 18, he describes the gospel - foolishness to those who perish, but to the saved it is the power of God. He knows that everyone will not understand I Cor 1 v 23,  We preach Christ crucified a stumbling block to Jews and foolishness to Gentiles. In 1 Corinthians15,  he sets out in detail his message, especially in v 3-7 where he speaks of Christ dying for the sins of the people, and how, on the third day, he rose again and appeared to his followers many times, finally appearing to Paul. In v 14, he says that if this is not true, if Christ did not rise, then his preaching is in vain. In Philippians 2, he uses an early Christian hymn to give more details, telling of Christ before his birth, of his humility, his obedience and finally his glory.

In the letter known as 2 Corinthians, Paul speaks of the promises of God (2 Cor 1 v 20). Many of these would be known to Jews from their scriptures. All these he says are  Yes in Christ , i.e., he fulfills all the promises of God.

Paul is absolutely certain that the gospel he preaches is the true one as he makes clear to the Galatians 1 v 8 makes this plain.

Paul s gospel is necessary for Christian belief. If we did not have the letters from Romans to Philemon, much of Christian doctrine would be missing.

His gospel includes the following points
The sinfulness of all men.  Romans 3 v 23   All have sinned and fall short of the glory of God.
The impossibility of man  by any acts of his own, obtaining righteousness.  Paul tells the Jews (Galatians 5 v 4),  You who are trying to be justified by law have been alienated  from Christ.  However, (Romans 6 v 23) The gift of god is eternal life in Christ Jesus our Lord.

That, by being a willing sacrifice in an act of propitiation, Christ fulfilled God s law. Romans 3 v 25  God presented him as a sacrifice of atonement, through faith in his blood. He did this to demonstrate his justice.

Reconciliation. There is no longer a barrier between God and men.  Colossians 1 v 20  Through him to reconcile to himself all things, whether things on earth  or things in heaven, by making peace through his blood, shed on the cross.

There are to be no distinctions. Colossians 3 v 11  Here there is no Greek or Jew, circumcised or uncircumcised, barbarian, Scythian, slave or free.   This is revealed in practice in Philemon where the runaway slave Onesimus is described as no longer a slave, but better than a slave, as a dear brother ( Philemon v 16).

Justification by faith, the doctrine of which Luther stood firm. It is what the Sunday school teachers used to call  Just as if I d never sinned.  Romans 5 v 1  We have been justified by faith, we have peace with God through  our Lord Jesus Christ.

Redemption. Ephesians 4 v 30  Do not grieve the Holy Spirit of God with whom you were sealed for
the day of redemption.  Also, 1 Thessalonians 5 v 9 speaks of receiving salvation through Christ.
Forgiveness. Ephesians 1 v 7  In him we have .forgiveness of sins, in accordance with the riches of God s grace.

The remission of sins,  that is, they are actually removed from the sinner. In 2 Colossians 2 v11, Paul speaks of how, because of Christ, sinners can put off their sinful nature.
Identification with Christ. Philippians 2 v 5  Your attitude should be the same as that of Christ Jesus.

Newell uses the word  incorporation  by which he means the doctrine that is Paul s alone  is that all those who are saved are part of the one  body   the church, the body of Christ. This is important to him. He mentions it frequently in Romans ( 12 v 5) 1 Corinthians (12 v 27) Ephesians (1 v 23 and 4 v 12) Colossians (1 v 24 and 2 v 19). Often the allusion is to a spiritual building or temple, the habitation of God, as in Ephesians 2 v 20 and 21, where Christ is mentioned as the cornerstone. Ephesians 2 v 22 In him you too are being built together to become a dwelling in which God lives by his Spirit. This idea of being joined together harks back in modern minds to John 15 and especially v 5 perhaps I am the vine, you are the branches. If a man remains in me he will bear much fruit. But it must be remembered that Paul did not have the privilege of reading those words, which, despite the order of the New Testament books, was written much later.  In his book (originally published in 1953) The Household of God, Lesslie Newbiggin has sections entitled  the congregation of the faithful ,  the body of Christ  and  the congregation of the holy spirit  which expound on such ideas.

Paul speaks of the destiny of the church in Ephesians 4 No longer infants, but speaking the truth in love, we will in all things grow up into him who is the
 head, that is Christ. From him the whole body, joined and held together by
 every supporting ligament, grows and builds itself up in love , as each part
does its work.

The church is there not just for its own benefit. It was described in the 19th century as  a club for the benefit of none members ,  which Newell refers to as  Divine exhibition . In Ephesians 2 v 7 and again in 3 v 10,  Paul speaks of how the church will show to future ages and to those in authority  the incomparable riches of his grace, expressed in his kindness to us in Christ Jesus  ..His intent was that now, through the church, the manifold wisdom of God should be made known.

Paul sets out clearly for his readers which things belong to the kingdom of God  - the fruits of the spirit listed in Galatians 5 v 23 love , joy, patience, peace and all the rest.  The word fruit is meant to be singular  - these are all part of one experience, all coming out of the love of God. He also cites, in the verses immediately before,  the things that are not of God  (Galatians 5 v 19 - 21) and Paul makes clear that the church, and the individuals within it are in a spiritual battle as described in more detail by David Watson in a chapter entitled  The Army of God  in his 1978 work I Believe in the Church.

Any text should be taken in context, and Paul s writing is in the context of the whole of God s revelation in his word - a revelation that is quite clear from the opening chapters of Genesis onward - that God wants a relationship with his creation. In one sense, the whole of Paul s gospel can be summed up in his words in 2 Corinthians 5 which are concerned with the  restoring of that relationship

If anyone is in Christ, he is a new creation ..all this is from God who
reconciled us to himself through  Christ and gave us the ministry of reconciliation that God was reconciling the world to himself in Christ, not counting men s sins against them. We are therefore Christ s ambassadors,
as though God was making his appeal through us (2 Corinthians 2 v 17-20).

In this quite short section, we have both the good news and the great commission.

Conclusion
Paul has always been a controversial and confusing figure. Even within the churches that he founded, he summoned up a variety of opinions   by no means all positive. In more recent times, modern women (feminist or not)  find some of his teaching difficult to accept, not just in his letter to Timothy, but in passages such as 1 Corinthians  7 v 1 where men are told that it is better if they do not marry, or , as in chapter 14 v 35 of the same letter where he claims that it is disgraceful for a woman to speak out in church - something that has been used against women for centuries, as has his assumption  ( 1 Corinthians 11  v3) of a divine order that places women below men. This from the apostle who also stated that there was no distinction among Christians. In Galatians 3 v 28, he says   There is neither Jew nor Greek, slave nor free, male nor female , for you are all on e in Christ Jesus   and further on in the same letter (5 v 1).  It is for freedom that Christ has set us free.

Yet without his careful explanations of the various doctrines as described above,  the church would be a much poorer body and would be possibly bereft of the important idea of the unity of the church as the body of Christ. The Bible and the church needs the Gospel of Paul.

In his book, Dr. Anderson expressed the opinion that people who are demon-possessed always act in an eccentric manner, they are usually unbalanced and anxious. Secular psychiatry as well as psychology may question whether being possessed by demons is a reason enough for an individual to act in a bizarre manner.  Anderson came with his theoretical approach that explores demon possession. He also developed a counseling technique which is based on his concept. He expanded his premise by drawing from belief codes in accordance to Christian canons.

Andersons Counseling Technique
Anderson expressed his opinion that non-believers are probably demon-possessed. The demons ensure that these people are unable to control their own lives. They cannot free themselves from bad practices even when they desire to act in a better manner. When believers engage in sinful activities or when they offer some lee way by which the demons can enter into their lives, they are enslaved and thus are unable to live in accordance to Gods intentions. He feels that the control battle often takes place in an individuals heart. The demon is often deemed to be attacking Christians through lies and temptations in their hearts. Christians are thus advised to be truthful and give no way for the devil to come into their lives. Human beings are weak in their nature, their thinking is not straight and they can be stimulated by factors in their environment, these are vital concepts that the devil explores to tempt Christians (Anderson, 2006).

He proceeds to explore the risks associated with losing control of our heart as well as our emotions, thee are what the devil uses to tempt Christians. He also feels that Christians lack psychological restraint. Repetitious sins give preference to the flesh as opposed to the spirit. He feels that, in our present world, the devil is very active this is because of the psychological disorders which psychiatrists feel has been on the rise. He feels that no dichotomy exists among the spiritual as well as emotional disorders. He also expresses the opinion that even believers are susceptible to demon-possession (Anderson, 2006).        

Truth Encounter
He came up with a very comprehensive clinical technique capable of supporting a demonized person. The theoretical approach is founded upon counseling by clarifying some truth in accordance to the bible as well as his numerous therapy sessions with demon-possessed counselees. He feels that his therapies enabled these people to be freed from such bondages and they were delivered. The devil always aims at taking control of believers. A believers identity in Christ is a key concept which Anderson emphasizes. The characteristics are founded upon the action of Christ on the cross as well as His assurance of making Christians champions. A Christian can be freed from past bondages when they identify with Christ. This is the area where Anderson feels that theology and psychology are integrated (Anderson, 2006).

Steps to Freedom
He came up with seven steps which could lead a believer to deliverance. First, the believer is supposed to renounce involvement in occult practices. Second, the believer is required to be truthful and restrain from deception. Third, the believer is required to choose forgiveness and not be bitter about his actions. Fourth, he is supposed to be submissive and avoid rebellion. Fifth, he should be humble. Sixth, he should choose freedom. Finally, he should renounce ancestral curses (Anderson, 2006).

Critique of Andersons theory
Andersons approach is effective in guiding a counselee to realization by means of truth encounter as opposed to power encounter. Power encounter involves commanding the devil to leave while truth encounter entails leading an individual to realization. This approach leads to a person realization of the difficult areas in his life (Dunn, 2009).

One major weakness is in his approach. Demon possession is portrayed as being behind all the difficulties in the life of a Christian. This approach seems to ignore the issues of the flesh, willfully disobeying God as well as other psychological aspects which are not demonization. The existence of a demon in an individual cannot be verified. Although this is the case, Christian faith acknowledges the supernatural realm which affects the mental stability of both the believers as well as the non-believers (Dunn, 2009). Anderson directed his book to Christians with struggling faith. Therefore, it becomes very difficult to relate the information to non-believers. His psychology outlook is unconstructive as far as the dichotomy between the spiritual as a well as the psychological is concerned. He recommends psychological concepts as well as techniques to assist believers in diagnosing their actual conditions (Dunn, 2009). Counseling approach to Christians should be founded upon biblical teachings. Christian counseling should be skewed towards spiritual health as opposed to psychological health. Despite these challenges, Andersons theory still play an important role as far as Christian counseling is concerned (Dunn, 2009).

Conclusion
Christians are supposed to be grateful to the sacrifice that Jesus Christ did on the cross. While Christians will still face temptations, they will emerge victorious as a result of that sacrifice. Anderson ought to have also come up with seven steps that are bound to lead a person to spiritual victory. He does not seem to be much concerned about spiritual aspects instead he emphasizes on psychological approaches in solving Christian challenges. Andersons theory on Christian counseling approach fails to take into consideration, the spiritual needs of the counselees. It still finds great relevance and application as far as Christian counseling is concerned.          

This critique is primarily an in-depth analysis of the books Boundaries in Marriages written by Henry Cloud and John Townsend and Hurt People Hurt People Hope and Healing for yourself and your relationships by Sandra Wilson.  The books take on a religious perspective on the aspect of healing and liberating one self from emotional and psychological responsibilities.   Readers will gain insights on how to control situations and directions of life and strengthening relationship with others.

The book of Townsend and Cloud emphasizes the theory that individual boundaries are vital to achieve happiness and to develop a rational and emotional wellbeing.  Wilson advances the theory that hurt is one vicious cycle that is considered endless not unless an intervention to correct it occurs.
A Critique of Theoretical Models of Boundaries in Marriage by Cloud and Townsend
and Hurt People Hurt People by Dr. Sandra Wilson

The Theory of Cloud and Townsend
The book title expresses a clear definition of its total message.  Clouds and Townsends book emphasizes the theory that individual boundaries is crucial to attaining happiness in life and developing rational and emotional well-being a vital component to maintaining health.  How we define boundaries greatly affect our relationships with others, be it in marriage, workplace, school or in the family.  Boundaries are invisible lines that make a distinction on who we are and who we are not.  Boundaries define ones soul and they help you to guard it and maintain it (Proverbs 423). This means when a person defines his territory on where to begin and where to stop grants him a sense of responsibility over his space.  Boundaries preserve the freedom of ones spouse without at the same time enabling the irresponsibility of that spouse (Boundaries in Marriage, 76).

Cloud and Townsend describe how boundaries facilitate freedom and responsibility in marriage other-control is the antithesis of having boundaries in page 1 of 7 marriage. Boundaries relinquish other-control for self-control. (Galatians 523)                  

Boundaries therapy proves to be a useful approach in counseling married couples given the fact that marriage is an absolute breeding ground for boundary confusion.  As Cloud and Townsend stated, If there were ever a relationship where boundaries could get confused, it is marriage, where by design husband and wife become one flesh (Ephesians 531). There is a significant number of failed marriages mainly because of poor boundaries than for any other reason (Boundaries, 150).

The Theory of Wilson
Dr. Sandra Wilson laid out the premise of the book mainly about hurt people hurt people.  It implies the idea that hurt is a cyclical phenomenon.  Wilson (2001) illustrates her theory that hurt people hurt people in her introduction All of us have been hurt by people who all were hurt by other hurt people. In turn, weas hurt peopleall have hurt other people to one degree or another. Enough evidences support the theory of Wilson. It requires no mastery to recall one example of the Holy Bible. The book of Genesis tells the story of Eve whom Garden of Eden Satan in the Garden of Eden had fooled.  
Her first instinctive move was to place the blame on the serpent. She told God The serpent deceived me, and I ate (Genesis 313). Eves first response was to try to find relief for her hurt by hurting someone else. Adam, also, responded in a similar manner, when God asked him whether he had eaten of the tree, he answered The woman you put here with me-- she gave me some fruit from the tree, and I ate it (Genesis 312). Adam also decided to pin point the blame to Eve and God for giving him a woman.  Hurt people do hurt people. The hurt comes in a variety of forms such as actions, words and attitudes regardless if they are intentional or unintentional, visible or invisible, hands-on or hands-off, other perpetuated or self-inflicted, and barely survivable to hardly noticeable (Wilson, 2001, p. 9).

Analysis of the theories
The theories advanced by Wilson and Cloud and Townsend signifies the need to reevaluate the imbalances that afflict the self-concepts and relationships of people.

The approach presented in the books of Cloud and Townsend, and Wilson are cognitive behavioral in approach.   The boundary therapy as conducted by Cloud and Townsend do not specifically stipulates therapeutic methods aiding clients to develop strong boundaries. The authors utilized a style of counseling in its way is direct and confrontational made clear from the counseling stories mentioned in their book.  Their therapeutic goals focus more on action rather than insight.   Their counsel involves methods that enable clients to change their thinking and behavior.  Consequently, their therapeutic approach can be most easily classifies with the cognitive behavior counseling models.

Wilsons theory of change is behavioral.  She writes that, making and consistently practicing new choices produces change (Wilson, 2001, p. 87).  The truth can be seen resulting to new choices made based on that perspective. A consistent practice of these new choices will result in new habits. New habits ultimately will result in a changed person. Beyond the Cognitive Behavioral Theoretical principles in her model, Wilson also incorporates a Systemic or Family Systems view of understanding client difficulty and distress.  She recognizes that in our sin-broken humanness, we normally adopt defensive, self-protective thinking and behavior patterns when we feel emotionally or relationally threatened and wounded (Wilson, 2001, p. 12). The focus of the therapeutic counseling process is to recognize, understand, take responsibility for and change these maladaptive thinking and behavior patterns.

Karol Jzef WojtyBa was elected as pope in October 1978, taking the name John Paul II as described by the Holy See Press Office. He was born in Poland in 1920, the youngest of three children. In 1942 he enrolled in the clandestine seminary of Krakov. Long before he became pope he had wide influence both  within the Roman Catholic Church and beyond, through his teaching career, his writings and as a member of the Synod of Bishops. He was also concerned with drafting the 1965 encyclical Constitution Gaudium et Spes of Pope Paul VI, which also bears the title Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Modern World.  The present document Centesimus Annus was one of 14 encyclicals that he sent worldwide.  Although the pontiff  was often criticized for such things as his opposition to contraception and the ordination of women, on a more positive note John Paul II was very influential in the fall of communism in his native Poland and so began a move which soon widened throughout the rest of Europe. He was also very concerned with reviving the spiritual life of the church and was in dialogue, and prayed, with those of other churches and faiths. So considered to be such a special, holy person was he that when he died in April 2005 it was very quickly decided to forego the usual period of several years before the beatification process could begin.

Centesimus Annus, 1st May 1991
Centesimus Annus was written to mark 100 years since the publication of Rerum Novarum (The Condition of Labor), an encyclical of his predecessor Pope Leo XIII in 1891, the earlier letter being in the main concerned with the position of the working classes and with rights to land, the latter being seen in more modern times as not as important as it once was. It is addressed not only to the church, but to all those of good will, which is an important point as the pope felt that all must work together for the common good.

 The newer encyclical commences with a description of the social situation which in which Pope Leo wrote in 1891. The present document is described as honoring that letter and the Churchs subsequent social teaching which flowed from it. He describes the world of the working man 100 years earlier. In Paragraph 4 he tells how society became split into the haves and have nots a split caused by the great gulf which separated capital and labor. The injustice this caused threatened a revolution, as happened in Russia a few years later. Society was reforming itself into one which brought the hope of new freedoms, but alongside these was also the threat of new types of injustice. The urge for reform had passed on from the purely political sphere to the economic one. In a document entitled The Promises of Centesimus Annus the author states In this new encyclical, the Holy Father provides us with reasons to hope in a modern society which would obey the Churchs social teachings. John Paul then outlines the constituent principles put forward by the earlier pontiff. These include the rights to ownership of private property, the rights of workers to form themselves in trade unions and those of their employers to also form organizations. Mention is made of the rights to such things as proper rest periods, time for recreation, and good working conditions including a fair wage which the state will guarantee. These include Sunday rest so that people  can  turn thoughts to heavenly things and to the worship which they owe to Almighty God. In Paragraph 8  the individuals free use of his own abilities and energy is described, something impossible if one is working hand to mouth for long hours and very poor pay. Mention is also made of religious freedom. Such rights the pontiff sees as unchallengeable, just as they were in the 19th century.

In particular, the letter  stresses the problems of injustice, especially with regard  to the uneven distribution of goods between industrialized and poorer countries ( The Third World)  as well as the way , even in an individual country, the same injustice occurs.The relationship between any state and its citizens is mentioned more than once.  Even in countries not actually at war  the present situation is seen as  non-war  rather than a trully peaceful situation. He speaks about the way in which the enormous wealth of some has led to moral decline. He speaks of exploitation with no regard either for environment or for poor workers. Reference is made to the task of governments whose ethical duty it is to manage all for the common good rather than for the benefit of a particular small elite, yet at the same time the danger of  governments becoming mere welfare distributers  becaseu when wage earners are no longer earning they have no resources of their own and so com e to rely upon the  state as their supplier.

John Paul quotes John 2115-17, the description of Jesus, in one of his last earthly acts, instructing Peter to care for the flock. This he says is the justification for both Leo and himself, as successors to that promise, to speak out about such injustice.

This is a complex document that covers many difficult issues, for instance
care for the environment is mentioned briefly in  Paragraphs 37 and 38, but the pontiff is concerned also, as he makes plain in Paragraph 38, that little is being done to  protect and promote good moral conditions  a good and positive environment in which man can thrive. He portrays man as Gods gift to man and says that mankind must therefore respect the natural and moral structure with which he has been endowed.

Things have changed and the world has moved on since Pope Leos day. This is now the post  Communism era. We are told that the most important source of economic affluence is not land, as it once was, not even capital, but a combination of skills and talents, many of which are brand new as technology advances. In what is described as a personalist view by the author of the article The Promises of Centesimus Annus  in April 1991, the pontiff proclaims that man fulfills himself by using his intelligence and freedom.

In the letter to the Galatians Paul lists the fruit of the Spirit - love, joy, peace and all the rest. Love is placed first because of its importance in the Christian life. After all it was the love of god for his creation that led to Christ coming to save mankind. In his encyclical the pope describes the kind of love required of Christian people Love for others, and in the first place love for the poor, in whom the Church sees Christ himself, is made concrete in the promotion of justice The italics are those of the letter, because this was a point to be stressed. The world is unfair and that is not in line with Christs teaching or the will of God. Christ came to save the whole world and in the kingdom of heaven everyone gets equal treatment and true justice. John Paul goes on to explain that justice will never be fully achieved unless helping the poor is perceived  as an opportunity for showing kindness, rather than poorer folk seen as merely being a nuisance and a burden upon the rest of society. It is pointed out that helping carries risks. The kind of help the pope is talking about is more than giving spare change or other surplus requirements, but a complete change of attitudes towards those marginalized or excluded from society. The kind of changes he perceives as necessary could almost be described as revolutionary, affecting as they do life-styles, patterns of consumption, changes in production methods and even changes to the ways in which power is distributed within society. This doesnt mean change for changes sake, but change where it is necessary to make the world a fairer place. It brings to mind the earlier song of revolution so favored by the Roman Catholic Church  the Magnificat  in which Mary speaks of God looking at  her of low status and doing great things for her. She speaks in Luke 1 verse 51 of God scattering the proud, pulling the mighty from their seats and exalting those of low degree. In v 53 it is the hungry who are fed and all this is to remind of his great mercy.

The pontiff goes on to speak about globalization, which he sees as an opportunity for international co-operation in order to produce what is best for the common good  not just for a few investors or those who already have to gain even more of an advantage. In Paragraph 59 however he speaks of a method of achieving this that might seem strange to many sociologists and economists- he speaks of the Grace of God working together with freedom as being a necessity. Freedom of course implies choice  freedom to choose where to live, what to wear, what food to eat, what education to give your children. These are the kind of freedoms denied to many, too many people, because of their poverty and the greed or inaction of others.  There must be a balance between giving power to governments and mans individual freedom, otherwise there is a danger of destroying the worth of the individual he says.

The rest of this section is concerned with evangelism  telling people the good news about life with Christ  this is part of the way in which society can be changed. This is seen as a practical solution both because it enables people to cope with their difficulties, but also because it opens to them new opportunities. The Church, he feels has something valuable to say about particular situations, both those of individuals and communal ones, whether local, national or international. She is able to correctly analyze social situations, to make sound judgments in regard to their solution and so is capable of indicating ways   in which just resolutions can be reached in problematical situations.
The final section of the letter, Section VI of Centesimus Annus, is entitled Man is the way of the church. In paragraph 60 he harks back to Pope Leos earlier document which called for greater co-operation, something which that pontiff found was rejected. He refers to  his own earlier writing Sollicitudo rei socialis, a letter addressed not just to the church , but also to all people of good will,  in which he expressed the hope that even those of no religion at all would help to lay the ethical foundation required.

Conclusion
This is a document concerned with history, both that of the 19th century and more recently with post-war Europe and, what was at the time of writing, the very recent  fall of Communism. Some points that were valid a hundred years ago are still so, but there have naturally been changes too.  It is also sociological, being concerned as it is with the state of society with its multiple problems such as immense world debt and a rapidly changing world.  Society and history are mentioned many times, but most of all this is a document about faith. The state of the economy is not as important as mans spiritual needs. In Paragraph 61, almost in his concluding words, the pontiff, as the successor to Peter, as the representative of Christs body on earth, the Church, John Paul II declares his responsibility to care for the people, but also stresses that this is the moral and ethical duty of all.  He reminds his readers that in Rerum Novarum Pope Leo XIII was speaking out in defense of man. The Church, he says, has continued with that task, insisting that society should to be free from oppression and be based upon a spirit of mutual cooperation for the common good. In Paragraph 7 he quotes from Leo XIII It is neither just nor human so to grind men down with excessive labor as to stupefy their minds and wear out their bodies In Paragraph 11 he had reminded his many readers that the Church, if it is following the example of Christ, has a special responsibility towards the poor and oppressed.

Poverty then is perceived rightly as being little better than slavery and  he feels compelled to speak out,  as his predecessor did so boldly, despite knowing that such a message will not necessarily be appreciated. He reminds his readers that true freedom is not only about economics, but also about spiritual values.

In this paper, we will analyze the situations in Syrian educational system to see if it is still appropriate to extend the study of Religion up to Secondary level. We will discuss further some possible amendments that can be done in the curriculum to provide higher academic excellence.

Academic goals serve and should only serve as the framework of any efforts used by the government in creating rules on educational system, then, anything that has less significance in achieving this goal must be abolished.

People craved for liberation in schools. If we are going to take a look at the education situation in Syria, since 1967, major changes already happened including nationalization of 300 Christian and 75 Muslim schools that primarily have western style and teaching foreign language. Blamed for this action, Christian family decreased thru emigration and most of schools became public. Thru efforts of wealthy Syrians, by 1990s, they rebuilt private schools mostly funded by businessmen, apparently with the considerations on class size, safety reputation, and special programs. Where the children will be studying became a major consideration of parents in choosing between private and public schools since many factors correlates to a schools ability to execute on its academic goals. Given that public schools tend to be limited on its ability to provide special programs the hardship of these people in building private schools provide supplement on educations further needs. Private schools in Syria enjoyed the freedom of designing its curriculum in relevance to the actual needs of its students. Since religious studies are not part of their curriculum, they are able to concentrate more on technical subjects and other advanced topics.  (Landis, 2003,p.3).

Syria shares the same school ladder with Jordan and Egypt since 1967 upon signing the Arab Cultural Unity Agreement. In this system, which includes religious study, students undergo six years of compulsory primary education, three years of lower secondary education, and three years of upper secondary education (Country Studies, 2010).

With this length of scholastic process, on the part of students, is it appropriate to rely on the way traditional religious studies are taught in public school and should we keep it being taught despite the fact that more technical skills needs to be focused on

Education would affect not just on the mind but more profoundly on the character of an individual thru influences and involvement in sharing social views. A nations success in its endeavors for education, better than being good in statistics of literacy rate and number of students going to school, must be analyzed according to its ability to uplift lives, morality, and skills of those students who will consequently replicate the quality of its population. Thus, these students who are the potential work force must be equipped with knowledge, influences and skills that will contribute in the way the nation is designed.

Some Facts about Religious Studies and Syrian School
Importance of religious studies should be analyzed in reference to the social variables present in the community such as minority group since we are talking here about religion which is no doubt one of the main categories of ideologies that divides people.

Religious subjects, being part of their curriculum, extends from primary to lower and higher secondary level and Syrian schools teach either Christianity or Islam. In Syrias population of 90 Arab and the rest mostly Kurds and Armenians, 74 composed of Sunni Muslim, 12 composed of Alawite Muslim, 10 composed of Christian, 3 of composed Druze, and 1 of composed Jewish (Coleman, 2010,p. 2).

. Thus, Sunni Muslims, carrying the largest fraction, can determine the structure of how things will be taught and what ideas will be required. Whatever way this will be taught must be highly considered for this is taken as one of the most sensitive topic to be discussed

When people talk about religion, they tend to cross the optimum knowledge of Physics and go esoteric to understand supernatural sources. It discusses more about the beginning and end thru doctrines and further studies. In the end, it will reveal that it will provide a design on way a man should live, and most of the time, this way will be concluded as should be done by group. To assess the value of religious study, it seems better to ask if ways of living can be taught or must be taught and in what extent (Betts  Hawthorne, 1925,p. 21).

Religion as a school subjects promotes knowledge on its huge role in shaping world history. This, though, can be highly sensitive if it violates liberalism in religious choice. Precise facts should be carefully delivered and taught to avoid false impression. Inability to share the right figures will definitely violate its purpose (Haynes  Thomas, 2001,p. 90).

Teaching style varies depending on whos applying it and to whom will it be applied. Any kind of teaching shows great results when there is a good learning atmosphere and adequate information. Once applied in religion, it needs to be understood that another factor needs to be taken into consideration  relevance (UAB, 2010).

In Syria, students shows that they do not take religious study seriously because some senior students are ignoring this since it will not be a pre-requisite for college. Since it bears nothing in students grade, inability to pass this subject will not make any difference and the student will still advance in the ladder. The efforts in teaching religion goes nowhere even though it promotes their cultural ties with other Arab nation.  The curriculum itself became the sole believer that this subject is essential (Landis, 2003,p.2).

As argued by Joshua M. Landis (2003), in his work entitled Islamic Education in Syria Undoing Secularism, the religious study makes convictions on religion dictate ones political and social actions instead of being liberal. Aside from Christians, other religions seem to be enemies of Islam. Despite the fact that Syria is being ruled by someone from religious minority for 40 years, still, having Sunni Muslims as the majority of its population makes the religion studies concentrated mostly on Sunni Islam.

What should come first then as a consideration Should it be the ties with the long kept comrades or the vision of the future with the promise of uplifting the internal health of the nation

Syria in Comparison to its Neighbor
Looking at the actual design of a nations economy will give an idea on what kind of people do needed to be developed to contribute on its work force in the future

Taking a quick overlook on the history of its main resources, Syria, by 1990s, like other country in Middle East, relies on production and exportation of oil for their economic growth although in 2004, it moderately slowdown and Syria also become a net importer of oil then relied on exportation of their non-oil goods (Coleman,  2010,p. 59).

Despite the fact that there are similarities in geography and environmental conditions, Syria remains behind its neighboring country, Israel which has 95 to 99 literacy rate compared to their 80 in average. When it comes to economy, as Syria experienced constraints due to falling oil production, Israel remained dependent on importation of their crude oil. United States, aside from military assistance, have mostly funded and aided Israel thru all these economic triumph, something that is not enjoyed by Syria. Being closely situated to highly disturbed areas for years, both countries get involved in century old disputes on territories in Golan Heights which is largely occupied now by Israel (CIA, 2010).

Syria should sustain the way their economy is currently designed and have it improved by giving their population, specially the youth, the necessary education no more, no less.

Liberation in Curriculum and International Efforts on Education
Yes, government must take control over schools to have a uniform standard system but liberation, as what the private schools has in designing their curriculum, should be another privilege the institutions gain to make the manner of teaching more appropriate in achieving academic goals.  Why is it that made it hard for Syria to adopt a foreign system which couldnt be doubted to have better style
As discussed by John Daniel (2004), UNESCOs assistant director-general for education, Arab world are struggling to revive their traditional methods while some other countries, who does not have primitive system of education, can simply accept the new and recommended systems. It roots from the rich history of Arab community which already established their own habit for education. He also shared the UNDPs Human Arab Development report in 2002 which shows the weakness of Arab community when it comes to freedom, knowledge and womens empowerment.

UNESCO, in its advocacy to increase the accessibility of education in all countries, promotes the program called Education for all (EFA) and Arab nations participate in this international endeavor. In the meeting of Arab Education Ministers on EFA in Lebanon last 2003, they addressed those three weaknesses as the main focused area for them to reach the EFA goals. Education remains perceived as luxury in Arab region considering their enrollment ratio of 15.8, lower than developing countries 30.9 and gender disparities remained at large. Government took positive actions to resolve this thru their United Nations Girls Education Initiative (UNGEI) and the Fast-Track Initiative (FTI) (Daniel, 2004).

EFA, even though it is still going thru different obstacles, made good start and looks forward to more achievements like making 75 million non-enrollees. Apparently, all of their goals will be met thru consistent international aid by private people and key partners in civil society who shares the same goal of multiplying the positive changes in peoples lives across the globe and so as in Arab region (UNESCO, 2010).

International efforts have already reached Syria. They should take advantage in gaining knowledge on school administration in global perspective that can help them modernize their means of uplifting the eager young mind of their students.

Vision for Syrian Education and Technical Subjects in High School
Where exactly we are looking ahead is the future with a height of advanced processes and procedures. Every country in the world already began to globalize, and its pace of advancement seems terrible. Whether on technical or non-technical aspects, the improvements of Syrias human resources will root in its foundations in school. The amendment of the government to the academic curriculum to meet this pace must be done as soon as possible. It should then focus more on technical skills like Math and Science instead of adding Religion studies. Foreign language can be another good option where the attention should be on.

Such, in Syria, medicine students became known as the brightest students because, by tiers determined thru special exams, only top students can afford to take Medicine course and those who followed that tier can take engineering course (South  Jermyn, 1995,p. 71).

Giving more focus on technical subjects, since applying on some universities will be categorized, will make way in giving the students more options on course theyre going to take in college.

Wrong Perception and Approach on Islam Studies and how can it Relate to Terrorism
Islam terrorism is self contradictory. Islam never support any act of violence and should never be involved or used to relate in terrorism activities. . Muslim community, though a fraction of its population was involved, cant still be equated to blood thirst and oppression. As the main doctrine of this religion, used by every Muslim community regardless of sect, Quran supports the proliferation of humanity thus, if there will be any valid excuse for waging a war, that should only be for the purpose of protecting life and defending interests  such as properties and virtues (Harun Yahya, 2010).

Muslims divide their community among sects due to some conflicts in history such as disagreement on how the group of followers should be ruled before. Though it may cost as one reason, this division of sects cannot be considered as a major factor of any form of violence such as terrorism in the Muslim world. To support this, Al Qaeda network, which is considered as one of well known terrorist group, doesnt share and stand on a sole belief and doctrine. Its members cant be grouped in one sect for they are either Sunni or Shiite Muslims. Thus, there can be hatred between sects but aside from that, unwanted situations may arise drastically due to political, social, and economic determinants (Blanchard, 2009,p. 1).

Terrorism pertains to the usage of violence in a massive scale which can easily catch public attention commonly carrying a goal of achieving political changes. These terrorists considered violence, not just to inculcate fear, but mostly to serve as their statement of opposition in any existing rules and situations applied in the society. The number of the possible causes cant be counted but can be categorized as political, religious or ideological. This act of lawlessness crosses, not just the Middle East, but more all over the globe (terrorism research, 2010).

Then, what makes the number of terrorist in Muslim community exponentially increase
Sophisticated terrorism traits give pictures to all existing characteristics and associated objects on modern day terrorists. Common children, residing in a city and going to school every day, can draw or tell you how a gun or bomb looks like without even holding and actually seeing it. They know how the gun works that with just a pull of the trigger, a man can be killed. They may not know it but they became aware of it since information is available in their environment with adult people concerning largely on their security. No school teaches terrorism and violence but school and any immediate environment may be the root of those desires of anyone for violence. Routines and habits seem to be the problem since arousal and not ideas and knowledge, as what school is offering, produce violence and this can only be brought down thru involvement in different practices and positive habituation (Horgan, 2005,p. 3-4).

We could have it avoided if such sensational topic will not define the young people instead should only serve as a guide for them in life. Religion being studied in primary school is enough and should no longer be taught in secondary schools where students in the stage of puberty are even having more personal and more dynamic issues.

Recommendations
Curriculum must be amended in its ways of teaching religion or must have this subject fully abolished in secondary education unless the rate of misunderstood lessons in Islam will be decreased. The Syrian government pushes religion to be part of the education system for it to take part on building the nation but due to lack of uniformity in its structure, students tend to have misconceptions on practices and beliefs between their sects (Landis, 2003,p. 7-9).

Teaching Islam differs a little with teaching any other subjects as right pedagogy will be applied considering that Islam also consists of facts and is a well diverse topic. Although, if theories will be removed and students rely on objective approach on Islam, study of this religion will let the students garnered specific knowledge and support it with general principles. Thus, if it will still be pushed to be part of the curriculum, liberal way of teaching it can be the best method or schools can instead prioritize the better option of  providing trainings which involve critical thinking, effective arguments, reading and other forms of liberal arts education (Wheeler, 2003,p.13-16).

Aside from technical skills, schools must develop the critical thinking skills of students and equip them with logical strength. Critical thinking provides the students the preparation in making sound judgment which is essential in making choices and participating in arguments. It enhances a persons ability to separate truth from falsity and critical choice will benefit a person in making things in favor of him instead of letting others do the thinking. The ability to reason out supplies the opportunity to make the best decisions, to solve problems and to judge fairly (Hughes  Lavery, 2004,p 20-25) .

According to Central Intelligence Agencys World Fact book (2010), Syrian somehow understood French and English as Arabic remained as their official language while Kurdish, Armenian, Aramaic and Circassian are widely understood.

Teaching English and French intensively, given that the population already has foundation on this, can be another subject to focus on for them to increase the advantage in foreign and diplomatic relations with the western region.

Conclusion
Considering that privately owned school institutions are able to make innovations on their standards thru the use of their liberal initiatives, government should do all amendments required to increase the productivity of scholastic performance. Traditions served as the nations guide on how are they going to provide the peoples demands but what they can provide for the benefit of the majority relies on careful study and assessment on current situations.

Religious study helps promote the legacy of Syrias traditions and preserve the long kept cultural ties with the rest of the Arab world such as with Jordan and Egypt. Removing Islamic and other religious studies from secondary curriculum and giving more focus on essential secondary subjects will equip Syrian population with more effective skills that can extend to the improvement of Syrian work force to promote their economy.

Every endeavor provided for education should direct solely in one end goal which is academic excellence.  It can all be summed up to maximizing the relevant and beneficial considerations and diminishing or modifying, if not fully eradicating, the lesser beneficial factors in making a more stable and reliable human resources of tomorrow.  

To understand Hasidism as a movement, it is important to comprehend not only when it was started and why but also the perspective of the movement in relation to schools of thought such as psychology, sociology and the phenomenology of religion. This essay thus seeks to help understand Hasidim in its entirety.

Body
Hasidism started in mid eighteenth century along the Polish-Romanian border of Galicia and a region of Ukraine known as Volhynia. The founder was Rabbi Israel Ben Eliezer (1698-1760) who later became the Baal Shem Tov or the Master of the Good Name. Hasidism comes from the Hebrew word Hasidus that wields the meaning loving kindness (Boteach, 21-23). Being a branch of the well-known Orthodox Judaism, it seeks to promote joy and spirituality by internalization and popularization fundamental aspects of Jewish mysticism and Jewish faith. It was a movement overtly against legal Judaism. Emerging as a popular reaction, the followers were against what they saw as remote, formal characters and elitism of the rabbinic leaders. The movement was sharply in contrast with the rigid and mechanical forms of worship, where Baal Shem Tov was preaching about piety of ones heart and emotional service to God.

The Hasidic teachings did cherish the concealed and sincere holiness of the common people as well as their equality with the elite or scholars (Boteach, 26). The emphasis was on the presence of divinity in just everything and it gave a novel value to deeds and prayer of kindness. It was replacing supremacy of the Rabbinic in study and historic mysticism, admonishment, ethical asceticism with doses of encouragement, fervor and optimism. Its goal was adding to the ritual observance standards by relaxing others, as inspiration predominated.  The Hasidic communal gatherings used to celebrate soulful storytelling and songs as a form of mystic devotion. Hasidism does comprise a chunk of the contemporary Judaism, Ultra-Orthodox together with the earlier Lithuanian-Yeshiva Talmudic approach as well as the Sephardi Oriental tradition. Also, the charismatic mysticism it wields has been inspirational to the Neo-Hasidic non-Orthodox thinkers and it has really influenced the wider modern and current Jewish denominations, just as its scholarly thought, rich and deep, has been a subject of contemporary academic studies.

Of importance is that Hasidism is not a single movement and each dynasty follows its own sets of principles. It can be referred to as separate and individual groups with a common goal. About 30 huge Hasidic groups exist while other minor ones are in their hundreds. As much as there are no individual kinds of Hasidic groups, they share more often with one another worship practices, songs, philosophy and dress.

Hasidism is an in-depth religious movement affecting basically every segment and strata of human life (Boteach, 34). From a sociological perspective, the insights postulated by Peter Berger seem to be relevant and enlightening in the case of Hasidic teachings. Berger is widely recognized for his strong and pragmatic views that in essence, social reality is in itself a kind of consciousness. At the heart of his work, is the existence of the relationship that exists between an individual and society. He developed the sociological theory that sees the society as the Objective Reality as well as Subjective Reality (Berger, 34-56). However, it is in subjective reality that we see Hasidism, from where it rose to its current level. Subjectivity reality aptly describes that the individual and personal reality conception is produced by the individuals interaction with his or her immediate social structure. Once the Hasidism movement has started under Baal Shem Tov, it sought to let the Jews who had been used to a rigid and legal religion believe and enjoy a better religion that would build into their individual conception of reality through the interaction with God in a more personalized and emotive way.

It is towards this awakening that simplicity and sincerity characterized the teachings of the early Hasidism, which stressed that true and poignant divine service consist a lot more than just religious scholarship. It is a sincere love of the creator combined with warm belief and faith and the fact that prayers are effective. Subjective reality in the line of Hasidism hardly stops there, since it is all about understanding oneself in the line of religion and cultural arrangement. It stresses that an ordinary person who is filled with sincerity and belief in God and has prayers that come from his heart is very acceptable in the realm of God than a person who observes the Jewish law fully but lacks inspiration in the line of divine service. A pure democratization of the Judaism religion that attracted the common folk and scholars, that the scholasticism of the rabbinical and asceticism of the Kabbalah hardly satisfied.

Berger also recognized that religion was a very powerful force in the society and pointed to the fact that globalized and more pluralistic fundamentals do change the way a person sees or experiences faith, where religion, taken for granted, is usually replaced by a personal individual search for a personal preference of religion. After the teachings of the Baal Shem Tov it is what the results up to date show, a personal preference of religion (formal Judaism), being taken for granted. Hasidism aimed at changing believers and not the belief. It also allowed the followers for once to place their emotions above rites and exaltation of religion above knowledge.  Those who were illiterate were offered spiritual enlivenment while their sincerity was to bring them as close as possible to God (Berger, 87-115).

Another crucial view from a psychological point of view is Eriksons psychosocial theory, which lays its emphasis in shaping and transforming human development, something that occurs in everyone (Erikson, 67-77). It is a fundamental theory that was developed by a psychoanalyst who was also a humanitarian. Its usefulness rises above just psychoanalysis and inevitably applicable in facets of personal awareness as well as development of others.  Taken from this basic point of understanding, psychosocial school of thought explains the results that the words and teachings of Baal Shem Tov aimed.  After personal awareness and understanding, he opened up the other Jews to a better approach of the same religion of their ancestors, this time not from a scholarly view but from a personal, emotional and one on one prayerful approach. After a period of false Messiahs and tribulations, the common folk Jew wanted inspiration and a personal way of praying and believing in God, and Hasidism had all the ingredients of human development and a novel way of exalting God.

The theory is superb in a society that still craves for teachings, coaching, self-awareness, conflict management as well as understanding others. The mysticism and teachings through parables that Hasidism incorporates is what Eriksons theory postulates, even in the modern society where relationships and family are quite stretched and requiring direction (87-93). This is because Hasidism teachings are founded along two main theoretical conceptions the omnipresence of God or religious pane theism and the idea of the existence of communion between man and God. They are stressed by the teachings of Baal Shem Tov who says that man should realize as he looks at material things that he is really gazing at the Deitys image, present in all beings and things. Thus, man will always be in the service of God even in very minute and small matters.

In phenomenology, religion is viewed as being component of different things and continues to study these distinct components over religious traditions towards understanding them. In the same, Eliades centrality of phenomenology in relation to history is dully reflected in his generalized understanding and comprehension of the religious as hierophany, or the manifestation of the sacred according to him (Heidegger, 45). As such, it has two elements, namely the modality of the sacred as well as the expression of the specific modality as historical phenomena of concrete proportions. In modality of the sacred, Eliade is in phenomenological terms referring to the most simplistic level of relationship existing between the sacred and the believer. In essence, it represents historical conditioned and concrete way that the sacred came into conception and ultimately explained. Thus phenomenology is in this case interprets the distinct ways that the sacred appear to people in the world, while being the manner in which humans care and understand, that has been revealed to them.

In the conception of the sacred and the appearance of the Hasidism in its framework of teaching, phenomenology can be looked at from the point of the developments of refreshed piety, demystification and refinement in the resultant Hasidism (Heidegger, 67-94). Hasidism aims at making its adherents to cultivate an extra piety degree, since it is the way it stresses the followers to see the sacred. It also stresses on refinement, where a Hasid is taught merely to refrain from striving to improve his or her character through learning novel manners and habits. The individuals should change completely the maturity, depth and quality of their nature. This change is achieved through integrating and internalizing the philosophy of Hasidism. In the relation between the sacred and the believer, demystification is encouraged, where esoteric lessons and teachings of the Kabbalah are made understandable for each person. In understanding, the goal is to aid in refining an individual while adding vigor and depth to a persons observation of rituals.  Through the phenomenology of religion the relationships between God and Hasidism followers are explained and comprehended. It is able to depict the function of religion in society for all individuals while offering a better meaning to the term religious experience to those who are serious and religious. This depicts the success of Hasidism in the lives of those who have been part of its movement.

Conclusion
The comprehension of Hasidism is important because of the tremendous effect it has on its followers, more so because of changing the historical and old approach towards Judaism that was far from the people in terms of interest and understanding.

The iconoclastic Controversy involved the premeditated and intentional destruction of the icons of the Orthodox religions during the Byzantine period.  This paper considers what iconography was, why it was important to the concept of truth in the representation of the divine and the effect that Byzantine images had on the political and religious factions of Byzantine itself.  It assesses the series of events of the Iconoclastic Controversy before progressing to identify its ultimate outcome and the effect that it had on the two factions involved.

Icons
In reviewing iconoclasm and the Iconoclastic Controversy, it is worth taking a look at Icons, their functions and their forms.  The word icon is derived from the Greek word eikones, which were sacred images that represented religious characters such as the Virgin Mary, Jesus, the Saints and angels, or events associated with their lives.  During the Byzantium period icons were created using a wide variety of media including marble, wooden panels, stones, metals, frescos and mosaics.  They were usually characterized by bright, vivid images and ranged in size.  Some icons, for example, may take the form of a pendant or flag, while others were created in the form of a fresco or tablet that was used to decorate holy buildings.

The icons we are familiar with today are very often presented with a 2D appearance and seem to lack depth something that one would expect in a traditional painting or picture.  Icons, however, were purposely created without this depth, the intention being that the spiritual meaning of it stretched beyond what the eye alone could see.  They were not intended as simple works of art, they were perceived as being a vehicle through which someone could connect to the person depicted they were intended as a window into heaven

When the Byzantines set up icons () it was not in order to have a representation of a person who was absent, who was not there.  On the contrary an image is a revelation, the visibility, and therefore the very presence of the person depicted.  An image is an image precisely because it bears the archetype in itself, so that a Byzantine icon is not merely a picture but a power (Safran, 48).

Icons, therefore, were not just the work of an artist they were the work of a theologian.  However, it was not always this way and the need to separate the spiritual from the material was a major cause of the Iconoclastic Controversy.

Iconoclasm
Iconoclasm concerns the deliberate destruction of the religious icons concerned with a particular culture or civilization with such an act usually being carried out because of religious or political motivations.  It literally means image breaking and is primarily involved with political or religious changes that are taking place on a domestic front.  

The people who order or carry out iconoclasm are referred to as iconoclasts--image breakers--and they are people who attempt to destroy established religious and theological conventions.  Conversely iconodules were the venerators of icons.

The Iconoclasm Controversy
The Byzantine iconoclasm controversy constitutes one of the most prominent conflicts in the history of Christianity and it encompassed both a religious and political crisis.  It occurred in two separate phases 726-787, and 815-843 and it divided the Western Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodoxy churches while simultaneously shaking the core of Byzantium.

The issues pertaining to the use of Icons arose as a direct result of the way in which the Byzantines used them.  In the early 8th century icons were a significant part of life for the Byzantines and their veneration for icons was ingrained in their daily lives.  People would pray to them, carry them as good luck charms and worship them as a means of communicating with the religious figures they revered.  However, for many, this was perceived to be at odds with the Christian interpretation of the Ten Commandments, which explicitly forbade the worship of a graven image or committing idolatry.  Opponents to iconophiles criticized people who worshipped the icons because they felt that they were praying to an icon, as opposed to an image and pressure was placed on iconophiles to stop their adulation of icons.

The first iconoclastic period 730-787
The first major period of the iconoclasm controversy was between 730 and 787 AD and it was started when Emperor Leo III ordered that an image of Jesus was removed from the entrance to the Great Palace of Constantinople.  A riot followed and the people of Constantinople rose up against the actions of the Emperor.  However, attempts to restore an iconodule society were largely unsuccessful and the people who fought for the restoration of icons were persecuted, tortured and many of them were killed.

Emperor Leos actions caused a split in the Empire and two factions emerged the west and the east.  Charlemagne, who slowly began to align the west with European ideas and belief, ultimately ruled the West, which initially under the papacy was largely supportive of the Iconodule practices.

The first iconoclastic period came to an end when Emperor Leo IV died and his wife came into power.  She was an Iconodule and immediately began to restore icons and remove the Iconoclast bishops that had been put in place by her husband and his father.  In 780 her son, Constantine VI ascended the throne but was not old enough to rule and Irene continued to hold the majority of power.  Her efforts to restore the practices of iconic worship were met with some resistance from factions of the army she finally issued a guidance for the freedom of Speech at the Council of Nicea in 787 and icons were restored to the churches and monasteries.

An important element of the Council of Nicea concerned their specification of how icons should be treated.  They ruled that individual could revere an icon but could only worship God.  They wanted people to accept that the icons were only a means of showing respect for religious figures and the events surrounding their lives, they were not a window to God.

The second iconoclastic period 814-843
Although icons were restored in 787, efforts to outlaw the practices of Iconodules continued to progress behind the scenes.  Although the papacy of the west empire had been in general support of the practice of the Iconodules, Charlemagne the new ruler, was not.  He renounced the council of Nicea and once again questioned the theology of Iconophiles.  This led to the rise of the second iconoclastic period, which, although less violent and bloody than the first, was equally significant.

In 842 Empress Theodora rose to power in the East Empire and she reconvened the council of Nicea. Again icons were restored but this time they started to take a very different form that they had previously.  The figures that appeared on the icons became two-dimensional instead of lifelike as they had previously.  Through presenting religious characters in this way the artists were able to avoid accusations that they were attempting to create an exact picture.  The images became representations and this avoided accusations that they were ignoring the rules of the Council of Nicea If anyone ventures to represent the divine image (, charaktr) of the Word after the Incarnation with material colors, let him be anathema  (The Epitome of the Definition of the Iconoclastic Conciliabulum, cited in Wikepedia, 2010).

The Iconoclastic Controversy  Two Perspectives
The Iconoclasts
There are several potential sources for the Iconoclastic attitudes that arose during the controversies.  Firstly, it is important to note that the first phase of Iconoclasm carried out was heavily reliant upon the actions of the Army under Emperor Leo.  At the time, the Iconoclasts were actually a minority among the faithful but they were able to overthrow the Iconodules using the force of the Army (who were largely Iconoclasts).  There is a strong possibility that the Army had been influenced by Moslem and Jewish factions that also rejected the worship of icons and similar trends were being observed in their own places of worship (Norwich, 111).

A second source for Iconoclasm may have engendered as a result of peoples views that the material world was corrupt.  Icons were created from precious materials, gold, jewels and expensive elements and this caused critics to argue that worshipers of icons were deifying the material possession, not the spiritual meaning they werent showing respect to the figure or the religion but the actual icon.

The third source for Iconoclastic thinkers was the New Testament itself and the directive that Thou shalt not make unto thee a graven image (Cited in. Besanon, 187).

The Iconodules
The Iconodules believed that the material world offered a means of reaching the spiritual world and they enacted this through their icons.  For Iconodules icons represented a means of uniting the spiritual world with their material world One of the most fundamental arguments in favor of the use of icons was the belief that the material world possesses the capacity to signify and mediate the spiritual world (McGraph, 32).  Iconodules didnt worship the icons they worshiped God through the icons.

The Iconodules too turned to the second commandment in justifying their position but interpreted this in a different manner to the Iconoclasts.  They also believed that Gods appearance to Moses on Mt. Sinai was a representation of the combination of spiritual and earthly things.  They believed that the second commandment permitted the worship of earthly things, provided they were utilized to worship God and no other God.

The Outcome of the Iconoclastic Controversy
The Iconoclastic Controversy was settled in part by the Second Council of Nicea (787) and this established an understanding of how icons could be used.  A clear definition of worship was established as a result of this council and people were forced to distinguish between worshiping God alone and venerating a saint or image.  From this date onwards the ways in which Saints, religious events and religious figures were depicted in iconic form changed and the artistic representations of them became two-dimensional, formal and symbolic.  This was intentional as expressing religious forms in a less than realistic manner entailed that the distinction between dulia (veneration) and latria (worship) could be clearly made and understood.  Unfortunately many of the Byzantine icons of the pre-Iconoclastic Controversy do not survive and as such the majority of icons available today are in the two-dimensional form.

Icons remain an essential part of Eastern Orthodox churches and have been since the days of the controversy.  For the West, however, things remained largely unsettled.  Similar issues were later to resurface during the Reformation of the Catholic Church and later during the Protestant Reformation.

Conclusion
The Iconoclastic Controversy highlights two opposing theologies concerning the relationship between visual arts and Christianity.  At the heart of the conflict was the concept of the reincarnation of Christ and the question of whether icons were worthy of worship.  The iconoclasm had profound effects for both the religious and political systems within the Byzantine empire and the impact of these are observable today both in terms of the art that survives the period and the extent to which images are perceived and treated by various religious factions.