Examining Larry D. Pettegrews Is There Knowledge Most High

Larry D. Pettegrews Is There Knowledge Most High presents a look at the Open Theism approach to religious life. His approach is far from cursory and covers the material from a perspective that effectively addresses such an examination.

It could be argued that Open Theism is a form of a logical approach to religious beliefs. It would seem that AUT takes many effective steps to point out that Open Theism seeks to combine Providence (the world of God) with the secular world. In short, he points out that there will be instances where certain approaches to religion lack a sense of logic. The author then takes steps to show that Open Theism offers a religious approach that seems to connect the complexities of human existence with the spiritual realm.

The article further explores the openness approach and effectively compares it to the classical approach of prior centuries. The purpose of this comparison is to effective show the differences between older models of theism vs. modern approaches. One area where this exists is the difference between a description of God as a human-like being vs. one that is born of emotions and emotional power. The latter approach is defined clearly and effectively which allows Pettegrews material to properly convey the argument towards defining the theories that Open Theism are based upon.

Probably the most provocative area where Pettegrew dwells centers on the reconstruction of the concept of God to where God is defined as pure love and is mutable and passable. Such an approach is one that intellectuals seemingly favor when defined who God is. However, it would be inaccurate to assume such an opinion of God is solely

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held by intellectuals. Pettegrews insight into this phenomenon is quite stirring and remains the best portion of his essay.

My personal take on the essay is that Pettegrew presents a brilliant analysis of a religious concept. However, it is difficult to completely accept the approach of Open Theism as the definitive approach to explaining or understanding God. Part of the reason for this is that Gods own description of himself in the Old Testament is rather vague. This is typified by the classic excerpt I am who I am. In addition to God being who he is, he is also often what other people would prefer him to be. This is evidence in how Open Theism seeks to describe God in emotional terms as opposed to being symbolically human in form.

While there is certainly nothing wrong with religious movements having their own unique approach to interpreting the bible and religious worship, the notion that a particular religion has a more intellectual approach is somewhat unrealistic. Yes, it is true that religion can appeal on emotional and intellectual levels it would be absurd to assume that one method has the right approach. No, this is not to say Pettegrew is making such an assertion but his notion that this will become a rage among Evangelicals since it presents a radically new approach. That may or may not be true. But, it will never be a definitive approach to defining God since no such consensus would ever realistically be possible.
All in all, Pettegrews work is interesting and thought provoking. This alone makes one with to learn more about the concept of Open Theism.

The Sociology of Religion

Max Webers study of religious experience and religious dogmas as they relate to sociological evolution  is intended to be based in empiricism.  Weber takes as his starting point the concept that religious experience reflects one the one hand an ineffable subjective experience, and on the other, a set of abstractions that encourages a non-empirical perception of nature and of natural processes.  Webers perspective is one of pragmatic inquiry and his main objective in The Sociology of Religion is to embrace the real-world implications of what he believes to be religious abstraction.  The foremost obstacle presented by religious abstraction, according to Weber, is the obfuscation of genuine phenomena.  In other words, abstraction that involves religious or magical ideology places a set of abstract fictions above real-world events.

For example, in so-called primitive religions, the idea of spirits obfuscates and understanding of natural-world phenomena.  In the case of spirits, Weber maintains that At the outset, spirit is neither soul, demon, or god, but something indeterminate, material, yet invisible, nonpersonal, and yet somehow endowed with volition (Weber, 230).  How Weber is able to ascertain the manner in which primitive religions (and ostensibly a diverse selection of religions) view the concept of soul or spirit at the outset is never explained.  Rather, Weber maintains the same type of abstraction that he believes is an integral part of the evolution of religious ideologies to support his contentions.  Weber offers not a shred of evidence to back up his assertions regarding the genesis of the concept of spirit among primitive religions rather, just as the primitive he castigates in his essay, Weber relies on the abstraction of Western history adn Western anthropology as they exist in generic terms to support his ideas.

Similarly, Weber dismisses the idea of magicians, shamans, and other types of religious visionaries out of hand, lumping all of these very different  cultural identities under a common designation of charismatic personalities.  For Weber, religious authority is equitable with personal power and charisma.  It is not prophets and visionaries who experience genuine mystical or magical insight who influence the evolution of religious ideals in any given society rather, according to Weber, the jurisdiction of the divine figures are as fluid as those of the officials of  patrimonial regimes   (Weber, 231).

Another point maintained by Weber is that priests, shamans, magicians, and other religious prophets who work in primitive societies are engaged in a process of self-aggrandizement, and this process ultimately displaces even the Divine power that is supposedly the initiation of religious impulse in the first place.  

When Weber remarks that Whoever possesses the requisite charisma for employing the proper means is stronger, even , the the god (Weber, 231).  In these cases, according to Weber, religious impulse is actually a religious pose that denotes and individual desire for power and authority. For Weber, religions that promote a living sense of magical connection between the Divine and mortal worlds a re merely abstract constructs which enable individual ascension to power within a society.  Weber calls this coercive religion and he maintains that not merely primitive religions, but religions throughout history and throughout myriad cultures, have culminated, not in spiritual truth, but in the aggregation of personal power.  The proliferation of religion as a mask for personal ambition and the conservation of institutional and personal power may strike some observers as specious given the fact that Weber offers little background evidence, historical evidence, or statistical evidence, to reinforce his notion that coercive religion is universally diffused and that the coercive principle exists as the original, though not exclusive, origin of the orgiastic and mimetic components of the religious cult   (Weber, 231).  Such a sweeping assertion, presented without any evidence whatsoever, demonstrates Webers typically loose style of argument.

The purpose of Webers inquiry is to fumigate the conception that religious impulses originate in true supernatural or mystical experience.  Weber views this fumigation as both important adn necessary because he believes that religious thought and dogma throughout human history offer an expedient and observable example of how sociological, rather than metaphysical, conditions promote both the specific articulation of religious ideas and how these ideas are translated into social memes.  Another aspect of Webers visualization of religious experience is that meaningful religious ideas and practices emerge from the human impulse to derive order and stability in a basically disordered universe.  Such a belief on behalf of Weber is taken to exert tremendous sociological and political influence on history.

Prophets of individual cultures and individual religions serve as touchstones for their respective societies and offer a unified view of the world derived from a consciously integrated and meaningful attitude toward life (Weber, 235).  Of course, the integrated and meaningful view of life offered by prophets and other religious leaders, to Weber, may be partially functional but is till based not in empirical experience, but abstraction.  Therefore such impulses to find unification and order in the cosmos is predicated on the ability for societies and religious groups to project order and meaning on the world and on the cosmos without having derived such order and meaning from experience itself.

Without a doubt, Webers inquiry into the sociological ramifications of religious thought and religious impulse adheres to a  linear and scientific facade however, close examination of Webers assertions and convictions results in an acknowledgment by the alert reader that Weber has failed to provide evidence, whether historical or through comparative art of literature or even religion itself,  to support his largely subjective perspectives on the phenomena of religious belief.

Jesus and Mohammed

Jesus and Mohammed are two influential figures in the history of religion. Their effect to the world is felt even in the present times. They are the founders of two main religions in the world today. Jesus is the force behind the establishment of Christianity, while Mohammed is the force behind Islam. Jesus is the key element among Christians. Christians argue that Jesus was prophesied in the old testament of the bible. His birth was predicted by many prophets of the Old Testament as a savior who would be born to a virgin, for the salvation of mankind. Christians believe that Jesus was a divine being, a son of God, who took physical form to be able to accomplish his purpose here on earth. Jesus died and rose after three days in the grave this was also in line with the prophetic teachings of the Old Testament.

Jesus did not present fresh teachings to the people, as his was a confirmation to what was written in the Old Testament (Aron, 1962). Mohammed is seen by Muslims as a prophet. Muslims argue that Mohammed was the last prophet of Allah. Muslims believe in other prophets of the Old Testament, but the most significant of them is Mohammed. They call him the law bearer and also believe that he was chosen by God to restore the original monotheistic faith. Mohammed is the originator of the Quran which is regarded as the holy book by Muslims (Mohammed, 1998). This essay analyses the impact of these two historical elements to religion.

Jesus
According to Christianity, Jesus came from God to earth to deliver mankind. He is believed to have been born to Mary (Aron, 1962). The bible talks of Jesus as having been born to a virgin as a fulfillment of what the prophets had predicted. Jesus was not a sinner despite the fact that he spent his life with sinners. Jesus was raised by Joseph who was betrothed to Mary, before the angel appeared to her with the message of his birth. His earthly father was a carpenter and when Jesus was young before he started his ministry, he assisted his father in his work. The exact time of his birth is not clear. As a matter of fact, even the bible that details his birth, life, and ultimate death does not have a record of when he was born. All what is clear is the place of his birth. What is closer to an indication of time is that he was born during the reign of King Herod, and during the first census in Syria and Judea. Jesus spent his childhood in Nazareth (Aron, 1962).

Jesus started his ministry after he was baptized by John in River Jordan. At this time, he was thirty years old. In his ministries, he is said to have raised people from death, healed the sick, delivered people from daemons and performed other miracles and wonders. After his baptism, he went to the desert and fasted for forty days. At the end of those days he encountered the devil who tested him, but he did not fall to those temptations. Jesus taught people a lot in parables and aphorisms. He mostly talked about the kingdom of God that Christians expected after the end of this life. This kingdom is promised to those who believe in him. Those who do not believe in him will be taken to hell (Aron, 1962).

Wherever he taught, many people gathered to listen to what he had to say. He converted many people to Christianity. He converted twelve people who followed him and helped him in his ministry. It is believed that when the time for his death reached, he was betrayed by one of the twelve. The name of the disciple who betrayed Jesus was Judas Iscariot. He had just shared with them bread and wine as a symbol of his body and blood. Even today, Christians perform that ritual, for it is said that he taught them to do so in his remembrance (Vaughan, 1989).

Before Jesus was arrested, he promised the Holy Spirit to his followers who would be their councilor. The temple guards came to arrest him. They had received their orders from Sanhedrin and the high priests. After his arrest, Jesus was delivered to Pilate for persecution. Pilate did not want to prosecute him but the crowd ordered for Barabbas to be released instead of Jesus. Jesus died on the cross where he was crucified among thieves. Jesus is believed to have risen from the dead after three days. His disciples testify to this by arguing that he appeared to them after he rose. He is later believed to have ascended to heaven. Christianity started spreading to other nations through the disciples who went around convincing more and more people to be Christians (Vaughan, 1989).

Mohammed
Mohammed was born in the period between 570 and 580 AD. He was born in Mecca, but later fled when he was threatened with persecution. Mohammed was raised by his uncle when his parents died. Mohammed unlike Jesus was a married man. He got a wife at the age of 25. Mohammed was discontented with his life. This was the reason why he went to a cave for meditation and reflection. It was in that cave at the age of 40 that angel Gabriel talked to him.

Angel Gabriel revealed to him the existence of only one God, Allah. This is the most celebrated month of Ramadan by the muslins. The angel also revealed to Mohammed that after the end of this life, there will be judgment. After the revelation, it took him three years to start spreading the word about the revelation (Mohammed, 1998).

To begin with, Mohammed converted a few people. His message was met with hostility by the people in Mecca. His converts received harsh treatment. He moved to medina with some of his followers to flee from the Meccan people. The movement of Mohammed to medina is the start of the Islamic calendar and is referred to as Hijra. The followers of Mohammed fought Meccan people for many years and later conquered them. By the time they returned to Mecca, they had grown very many in number. The death of Mohammed happened in 623 AD. He died of natural causes after coming back from a pilgrimage. He was able to convert many in the Arabian Peninsula. He also had many converts in Arabia. His revelations from angel Gabriel are the verses of the Quran. Muslims regard it as the word of God. This book does not reveal Mohammed as a miracle worker, but his ultimate miracle is the Quran itself (Mohammed, 1998).

Impact of the death of Jesus and Mohammed
The final words of a hero are very crucial to those who revere him. The final words of Jesus were forgiveness and mercy for his tormenters, because they had no idea of what they were doing. Even during his life, he always taught his followers to do good deeds (Aron, 1962).   Mohammed life was full of conflicts and he earned his converts by the sword. During his death, Mohammed spoke a curse to the Jews and Christians for he argued that they had constructed their worship houses on the graves of the prophets. After the death of Jesus, his followers continued to live a life of love, peace, and forgiveness just as they had learnt from their teacher. They also urge others to live a life free of sin so that they can enjoy the everlasting kingdom. Conflicts among the followers of Mohammed began immediately after his death, with the disagreement on who would succeed him. They continued to win converts by sword and fighting to protect their faith. Muslims believe that if they die defending their faith, then they will go to heaven (Mohammed, 1998).

Methods of worship
Christians believe that Jesus is the only key to being a child of God. He is the only key to having a relationship with God. He is the connection between Christians and their creator. Jesus is revered by Christians but in connection with God and also the Holy Spirit (Aron, 1962).   The life and ways of Mohammed are upheld by the Muslims. They regard him with reverence. Whenever the name of Mohammed is mentioned, they add the phrase, peace be upon him. Mohammeds birthday is observed by Muslims throughout the world. The Quran refers to Mohammed as the mercy to the world (Mohammed, 1998). To Christians, there is no formula of worship, but they use kneeling sometimes to show surrender to God. Muslims on the other hand, pray five times a day while kneeling and facing Mecca. Men and women in Islamic faith do not pray inside the same mosque (Mohammed, 1998).  

Spreading of the two faiths
Christians use the bible in spreading the faith while Muslims use then Quran. Christians spread the gospel of Jesus Christ by following his teaching in the bible. Muslims preach about the belief in one God and Mohammed as his last prophet. This forms the basis of Islamic faith. Every Muslim is supposed to proclaim the Shahadah that Mohammed is the prophet of Allah. The Shahadah is the basic creed and it is the means through which the faith is passed over to people. When a child is born, it is the initial thing he hears, the moment the child is able to understand, it is what they are taught, and it is spoken during the burial. The converts are taught to recite it, and it is what is used to call Muslims for prayers (Vaughan, 1989).  

Conclusion
Jesus and Mohammed are significant elements in their successive faiths but they were dissimilar in every aspect of their life. The two religions also contrast in many ways. Their beliefs are different just as the life and origins of their founders were different.

Ijma

Ijma or Consensus is one of the four pillars of Islamic jurisprudence. The fundamental basis of any ruling is Quran and Sunnah, however, when there are no examples available from these to sources, then Islam encourages Ijma or consensus based upon reasoning and finally if there is no Ijma, then usually scholars end up reaching a conclusion based on Qiyas. Based on the hadith quoted in the question it appears that the Prophet believed that in fact the Islamic community will not agree to something which is incorrect.

According to Imam Al-Shafi The adherence of the congregation (jamaa) of Muslims to the conclusions of a given ruling pertaining to what is permitted and what is forbidden after the passing of the Prophet, Peace be upon him (Cited in Kabbani, n.d.). Based on his understanding, Ijma cannot be carried out by a layperson instead it is reached by a general agreement after a reasoned discussion between different scholars. Conversely the Quran says the majority does not know (aktharrun nass laa yalamun).

Although the question indicates that there is a contradiction between the Ayah and hadith, but it is evident, that Ijma is not something which can be carried out by any group of Muslim, there are terms and conditions which have to be followed, and the belief of the prophet is reiterated when in his opinion an Ijma can only occur when the consensus is based on facts and reasoning.

The idea of Taqleed is linked to Ijma, in a way that it obligates all the Muslims to follows the reasoned agreement between different scholars of Islamic jurisprudence as long as the Ijma doesnt contradict either Sunnah or Quran. However when discussing the seeming contradiction between Quran and Hadith it becomes apparent that indeed Ijma is something which cannot occur frequently, rather it is a decision which is taken after discussions and debate, while most of the time people are unaware of complex and multifaceted issues, so they have to follow the religious scholars in their best possible decision in the absence of  guidance from Quran or hadith.

The Concept of the Trinity in the Nicene Creed

According to the Nicene Creed, Jesus Christ was the only begotten son of God, begotten of his father before all worlds, God of God, light of light, true God of true God, begotten, not made, being of one substance with the father , by whom all things were made. This statement clearly tells us four very important points (1) that Jesus Christ was the only begotten son of God the Father, hence He has no equal and there is no one else like him (2) that Jesus Christ was begotten even before all of the universe and nature was created, thus He existed before any other thing did (3) that Jesus Christ is begotten and not made, which means that He came from God the Father not through a process of creation but as being begotten or brought about, caused or given rise to and that (4) Jesus Christ is a being of one substance with God the Father, which makes him divine. It is interesting to note that the first Biblical man, Adam, was made in the image and likeness of God, which does not necessarily presuppose having been made from exactly the same substance as God hence Adam may not be divine like Jesus. Moreover, Adam was made, not begotten. These four very important points were, more or less, the subject of opposition of the Egyptian priest Arius prior to the formulation of the Nicene Creed.

The Arian Heresy and its Opposition of the Divinity of the Christ
The arguments of the Egyptian priest Arius on Jesus human nature implied that the Christ himself was not God but just one among the many humans. This was refuted by the part of the Nicene Creed which states that one Lord Jesus Christ, the only begotten son of God. Arius also implied in his arguments that Jesus Christ was and is not God, by saying the only God the Father is the one eternal God. This was refuted by the line in the Nicene Creed which states that Jesus was begotten of his father before all worlds, God of God, light of light, true God of true God. Another line from the Nicene Creed that refutes the claim of Arius was the line which says that Jesus was and is a being of one substance with the Father, by whom all things were made. The last of the implications of Arius arguments was his claim that Jesus was created by the Father, hence was only a creature. The Nicene Creed answers this with the line which states that Jesus was begotten, not made. This particular distinction in terminology, between made and begotten, implies that one of the biggest differences between the Nicene Creed and the arguments of Arius is a matter of semantics. Begotten, as used in the Nicene Creed, means born of or having arisen from, and this clearly delineates a very essential difference between Jesus and all other creatures of God who were made, including Adam.

The Gospel of John and Its Support of the Trinity
The first verse of the Gospel of John mentions that when all things began, the Word already was. The Word dwelt with God and what God was, the Word was. This line further affirms the statements of the Nicene Creed which profess Christs divine nature and implies that Christ was never created, as what Arius was arguing for. Next, according to the second verse of Johns Gospel, the Word, then was with God at the beginning. This means that Jesus was not just like anyone else  he was God and he was able to witness all events that happened during the first creation. This claim on Christs divinity was further reinforced by the third verse which states that and through him all things came to be no single thing was created without him and that all that came to be was alive with his life. The second and third verses are telling us that without Christ, creation would not have been possible. This clearly implies that Jesus Christ himself was equally important as God the Father.

Family to Family Leaving a Lasting legacy

The authors of the book Family to Family are not only authors by profession but have been working in different ministries and it is their services in different spheres of life other than authorship that has shaped their stance to write something on religion and theology. One of the authors, Pipes is the Team leader of the Prayer and Spiritual Awakening team of the North American Mission Board and has been an orator in schools, churches and other significant places. He has been a presenter of war on drugs in H.W Bushs Administration.  Dr. Pipes are called a typical Texan by many of his contemporaries as he relished ample pride for the state he belonged. He also authored Becoming Complete and Building a Successful Family Living.  The other author Lee has been a veteran journalist and minister where the center of his concern was issues as good family living, sports evangelism, singles ministry and discipleship. Lee wrote profusely in Christian magazines and websites, and also for sports magazines.

The authors state the purpose of the book in the opening lines of the book that the book, Family to Family, is for those parents who desire meaningful family time and want to pass baton of their faith in Christ on to their children (Pipes and Lee 1999)

Lee and Pipes guide the parents for how to disciple their children and when to introduce them to Christ. They start with telling what a healthy family is and what an unhealthy family is and they also compare and contrast the two with each other, then they go on to describe the guidelines for developing a Mission Statement that is to contain the values and traits that good families must possess. According to the authors, parents are at the center of a family evangelism. In the process of developing Mission Statement it is essential, according to the authors, to take a family inventory and then materialize the statement while keeping the goal before you with the inclusion of the entire family so that the principles of the mission are fulfilled successfully. They move on to tell the parents when and how to pass the baton and share the message with their children outside home and church. And for those who have been late to think of the baton of faith to pass on to their children, Lee and Pipes give suggestions to rectify the situation.  They admonish the parents to keep the age of their children in view before transferring fecund dogmas and beliefs that their minds would not be able to understand and the danger of their being misled would increment. Therefore the authors advise the parents to first identify whether the child is ready to accept the intricacies of religion. Here understanding the concept of sin is of pivotal importance as it is in Christianity. The authors also emphasize on sharing Jesus with their children and on parents for taking responsibility of presenting themselves as a model for their children.

The parents should make the word of God center for their deeds and sayings. To pray with your children is as important as to have meal with them. The authors also illuminate their readers by offering them the ways to evangelize out of your houses walls to access the community to invite them to attend church and prayers. Lee and Pipes conclude the book with the illustration that the failure of parents in evangelizing their children would imply either their own weakness of faith or that the problem lies in the Gospel itself.

This guide for a healthy family, according to the authors, would prove helpful for discovering Gods purpose for your family, for developing a family mission statement, establishing core values, equipping your children with the teachings of Christ and mentoring them spiritually. The book aims to guide for how to follow Christ. The book is written comprehensively and simply but has profound ideas to convey to their intended audience. It includes some interesting anecdotal stories that help to sustain the interest of the readers. As the book commences the story of a family tradition is presented that is followed by a step-to-step guide for raising a spiritually healthy family.

The inclusion of statistics of the research from American Family Association and George Barn adds up to the validity of their argument that they would be presenting. They state that only 34 families in America eat one meal together each day and only 12 families pray together. The statistics chosen by the authors prove how families spend minimum time with each other and this is the root of problem in a family. They identify the causes behind the unhealthy and deteriorating families and how children of unhealthy families are thwarted from the church for which readers find it convincing and applicable in their own lives.

The simplicity of language of the book might have been criticized by academic reviewers and critics who would disapprove the book for being categorized under the category of an academic piece. But the irony that emerges out of these criticisms is that the readers who can not find time for their families and spend only few minutes together including meal time and television would not be able to read a book written in flowery language. The simplest thing for them would be to put aside the book in a corner. The real mastery of the authors lies in the fact that they convey their message to the parents unlike parsons whom people in twenty first century do not believe in. They invite the readers in a simple but emphatic language without being sounding like preachers. Their words are simple unlike sermons but vivid and effective simultaneously. Thus Lee and Pipes succeed in achieving their goal for they teach the parents in trouble what they believe is true. The conclusion, on the other hand, is vulnerable to open criticism as they conclude with end notes professing that if the parents fail to achieve their purpose, that is to build up a healthy life and follow their offspring towards Christ walking on the lines drawn by them, it must imply that the parents might have weaknesses in their beliefs on Gospel or that Gospels teachings must have been hyperbolic.

Another weakness that serves to undermine the rate of interest is the mixing of the anecdotal stories with various statistics which makes things difficult to absorb. The statistics provided in the endnotes must be accompanied with some more background information rather than just been dumped in the end. But this weakness does not overshadow the importance of their being informative.

Next, the chapter on mission statement seems a replica of Franklin Coveys seminar and the scriptures which put the originality of the author in question. Moreover the absence of citation while comparing Jonathan Edwards and the Jukes family left the impression that the authors did the research merely to develop this idea. Pipes and Lee in their book state the example of big rocks and little rocks without giving credit to the real author of the illustration-Franklin Covey. Besides these things the chapter about mission statement is informative, interesting and influential. The authors of the book must be given credit for teaching the parents about issues they think would be personal and which normally the parents would never allow any other person to interfere with. But it is certainly the talent of the authors that they teach without sounding didactic. The readers would enjoy and take advantage of the guidelines which are usually expected from the parsons. The book is also criticized owing to its economy as some of errors in printing have been noticed by some costumers who ask for the need for the book to be proofread before its publication. But the main purpose of the book is to leave a lasting legacy for the parents and help them evangelize their homes so that they would be able to prevent from being astray. The purpose of the guide gets fulfilled as the readers can finish the book in a short time and that would give them valuable principles to baton their children towards Christ.

Dilemma of military Jihad in Islam Hawks perspective

The concept of Jihad in Islam has been widely looked into and most often criticized. Critics have often argued that Allah, in the Quran, prescribes to killing non-believers and therefore hold Islam as a religion based on war and conflict. In the essay which follows, perspectives from three leading religious proponents of military jihad have been analyzed and criticized. As these three scholars follow a similar line of thinking therefore it is very important that their background is taken into consideration in order to understand their rationale for armed jihad. Here it is also imperative to mention that the Quran should be read in its proper context in order to grasp its true meaning. This has been an issue as numerous authors continue to misquote and associate verses from the Quran that are not related to militant jihad. It is further evident from their writings that the authors are primarily addressing Muslims who have limited knowledge about Islam, and those that are likely to join their movement.

Writers like Abdullah Al-Azzam, Abdel Salam Al-Farag and Sayyid Qutb, who have promoted the case of militant Islamic radicalism, all belong to some of the worst conflict-ridden regions of middle-east. While Al-Azzam belonged to Palestine, which has a historic and bloody conflict with Israel, Al-Farag and Qutb belonged to Egypt, where conflict of an internal nature has persisted over the years. Egypt, like other middle-eastern states, has a history of state sponsored oppression and serious human rights violations. Although Egypt poses itself as modern, secular state but in reality it has been a dictatorship for very long time where voices of dissent have always been dealt very harshly. Scholars like Sayyid Qutb often relate this political dissent with religion to gain support.

In this background it is easy to see scholars like Qutb (409-410) lamenting for war in order to establish Gods rule in his country and bring about relief to the masses. In the same context, Al-Azzam (426) talks of jihad in Afghanistan in order to rid it of infidels, but sadly, we see him taking up arms for his adopted country and not for the country of his birth where humanity has suffered for decades.

Interestingly, all these proponents of jihad seem to have serious flaws to their rationale and by giving them a scholarly stature we not only embarrass mainstream Muslim thinkers and philosophers but also ourselves on our own intellectual capabilities.

Al-Azzam (425) starts off his argument for militant jihad by saying that whenever a Muslim land comes under infidel occupation, it becomes a primary duty of every Muslim citizen to take up arms against the oppressor and in case the citizen is not motivated enough, it becomes an obligatory duty of bordering countrys Muslims to cleanse the land of the oppressor. This means to say that even if one does not wants to be saved must be saved. The author also does not give any clues as to what religious scripture led him to this conclusion. Al-Azzam (426) then goes on to debate various scholars who have deemed jihad in Afghanistan and Palestine as communal obligations but insists that Afghan jihad has now transformed into a personal obligations. The author, however, does not shed light on the problem of Palestine or its priority.

Al-Azzam (426) then goes on to suggest that no permission of any sorts is required in order to fulfill this obligation. This means to imply that no permission is required, either from family or from the government. Here, Azzam also advises his followers not to get into any sort of argument with people who may discourage them from this noble cause and by doing so he is closing the doors of reason on his followers. He goes on to say that people who may not want to be a part of this cause should be punished for not co-operating in the matters of righteousness and piety (426) which is in stark contrast to Qurans claim that there is no compulsion in religion.

In the notes regarding application of this ordinance, Al-Azzam (426) conveniently absolves clerics responsibility by saying that the job of scholar is just to clarify the Islamic legal ruling and that it is not the clerics job to call people to jihad. Oddly, the rest of his essay does not seem to support that argument. He also adds that no financial support will be provided to fighters or their families and quotes from a source (see Qartabi 426) which seems, at best, questionable.

Al-Azzam (427-28) then goes to discuss various issues related to jihad, i.e., how one can pursue jihad and how one is absolved. He sheds light on why Arab women cannot participate in the Afghan jihad. He also presents a code of conduct to the mujahid (freedom fighters) and states the rulesregulations to be followed upon returning from jihad. Here, Al-Azzam quotes an anonymous source to support his argument. With such lack of intellectual depth, one can only question his scholarly ability.

In contrast to Al-Azzam, who was mainly concerned about making a case for jihad in Afghanistan, Al-Farags writing seems much more philosophical in nature but his reasoning and deductions are certainly questionable, to say the least. In his essay, the forgotten duty, he argues a case of fighting infidels, who are near (417), meaning the rulers of his own country rather than to go and fight in distant lands like Afghanistan. In the first section, he does not give any religious reference to support his view point and only states that Rule of Gods Religion in Egypt has to be implemented first and foremost.

In the subsequent section (418), Al-Farag presents his case of offensive jihad where he quotes from a Hadith (sayings of Muhammad, P.B.U.H.) and concludes by saying that fighting is essential for jihad, be it offensive or defensive. This is a classic case of a fundamentalist who interprets the idea of fighting literally (to combat), in contrast to other scholars. However, El Fadl (463) has extensively discussed this argument by saying that jihads literal meaning is to strive and clean ones self from social evils.

Al-Farag (418) then goes on and makes a case for militant jihad by quoting a couple of verses from the Quran (9.5  2.216), which he labels as the Verse of Sword. When these verses are read in their contextual background, they would seem that these verses apply to a specific circumstance. Verse 9.5 states But when the forbidden months are past, then fight and slay the Pagans wherever ye find them, an seize them, beleaguer them, and lie in wait for them in every stratagem (of war) but if they repent, and establish regular prayers and practice regular charity, then open the way for them for Allah is Oft-forgiving, Most Merciful. It is clear that this verse applies to a treaty which was signed with non-Muslims. In this verse God offers specific code of conduct to Muhammad (P.B.U.H.) incase of transgression. In the other reference (2.216) Allah states, Fighting is prescribed for you, and ye dislike it. But it is possible that ye dislike a thing which is good for you, and that ye love a thing which is bad for you. But Allah knoweth, and ye know not. This verse again refers to a particular situation where God is answering specific questions which Muhammad (P.B.U.H.) was asked by different people. In the very next verse (2.217), the Quran says, Say Muhammad Fighting, therein, is a grave (offence) but graver is it in the sight of Allah to prevent access to the path of Allah, to deny Him, to prevent access to the Sacred Mosque, and drive out its members. Similarly, in the continuing verses answers were given on other matters like drinking, gambling and the life hereafter. This again goes on to show that these verses applies to particular situations. Jackson (396), has raised the argument against Al-Farags reasoning by saying that this particular sequence was pegged to the annual pilgrimage to Mecca at that time, where the pilgrims needded time to perform pilgrimage and return safely to their homes.

Interestingly, in the next section of his essay Al-Farag (419-20) argues and quotes from a certain scholar, Al-Suyuti, who raises this very question which has been put in the pervious paragraph but then goes on to imply that Al-Suyutis argument does not holds weight. Al-Farag then goes on to say that jihad shall continue till the day of resurrection and cites Muhammads saying in support of this. Towards the end of this section, Al-Farag (420) argues that Muslims must not wait until they gain strength to fight and implies that one should not one should hurry to war and expect God to send His reinforcements to the mujahidin.

Al-Farag (421), quotes from the Quran (5.3) arguing that since the teachings of Islam has been completed, one has to comply whatever has been written by God.  He says this in order to counter an argument which says that the above verses were revealed at a time when Islam was still in infancy and hence do not apply to later periods. Al-Fadl (462) has contested this argument by saying that Islamic debates in modern times have often become politicized and polarized.

In the following section Al-Farag (421) goes on to debate that jihad is now a moral duty of every Muslim as the other tenets like fasting or Salah (daily prayer) and goes on to say that by fighting the Quran literally means combative fighting. Here, neither he elaborates nor offers any verse in favor this argument. He then delves into an argument that jihad is an individuals duty and there is no need for any permission from anybody.

Unlike Al-Azzam, Al-Farag does not shy away from presenting opposing views in his work. He quotes from Imam Ibn al-Qayyim (422), who argued that there are three categories, and this is view which now most of the Islamic scholars seem to agree upon, but in his usual manner Al-Farag completely rejects this view by giving a counter argument that since jihad against ones self will never end so one cannot progress to the other level, i.e., jihad against the Devil. He then concludes by completely rejecting a Hadith which says that jihad is against ones soul.

In the concluding paragraph, Al-Farag (424) argues that one must not encompass within himher the fear of failure but rather one must stay firm to hisher beliefs, and display patience and trust in God. He also dismisses an argument stating that when clear or able leadership is absent, jihad must be undertaken. He affirms this by citing a questionable Hadith (424) by most standards.

It is apparent from the above criticism on Al-Farag, that numerous flaws are present in his rationale. He not only continues to quote out of context, but also add incompetent rationale to his perspective by overlooking facts. Although he does not seem to shy away from popular counter arguments to jihad, the deep grey areas in his thought process led him away from mainstream Islam and towards counter-revolution.

Of the three writers, Sayyid Qutb seems to be intellectually superior (in a philosophical way) but this does not mean his rationale is at all correct. Throughout the essay, he keeps churning out ideas which are often conflicting and rejecting the ones which do not conform to his own beliefs. In his essay jihad in the cause of God he asserts that all Muslims should strive for establishing a dominion of God and returning the sovereignty from the usurper (409) by enforcement of Shariah (way or path of God) and by rejecting the laws of man. He pleads that since the usurpers will not give up their vested interests easily, it is essential to go for jihad or movement as prescribed by God (410).

Thrust of Qutbs argument is that the mankind has been subjugated through economic, social and political systems. In order to end such tyranny, it is necessary that Gods law must be implemented in letter and spirit (410). On the same note he informs his readers that Gods law, in fact, provides freedom to humanity and under His law everybody is free to adopt any belief system one may wish to follow. Qutb, however, does not informs his readers as to how this will happen when there will be nobody left to digress from the religion of God.

Qutb raises a genuine argument discussing the reasons as to why successors of Muhammad (P.B.U.H.) continued act on the offensive following his death (412). He suggests when there were no holy scriptures being sent by God through Muhammad (for particular instances for going to war), his companions like Umar and others continued to spread the word of Allah by the sword. Qutub also asserts that jihad was never a defensive strategy. However, this argument has been countered by Al-Fadl (461) who says that Islam entered in China, Malaysia and other parts not through war but through trade. The reasons for armed jihad after the death of Mohammad (P.B.U.H.) are, at best, debatable.
Yet another example of Qutbs conflicting thought process when he quotes that there is no compulsion in religion (412), but as the mankind is already suffering, this idea cannot be implemented till the rule of God reigns supreme. Moreover, he harshly puts aside the notion that offensive jihad had been ordered for specific instances. He then goes on to build an argument on jihad by saying that Muslims were not allowed to fight in the earlier times, then God permitted them to fight and finally Allah ordered them to fight (413). Thus according to him there is an eternal cause for jihad. Qutb then delves into an extensive debate on the different periods of early Islamic history, i.e., the Medinite period and the Meccan period. It should be noted here that very seldom in his essay Qutb directly quotes from the Quran or Hadith. Moreover, he utilizes quotes from different verses and merges them to form his argument. For example, he quotes verse (838-40),  Say to the Unbelievers, if (now) they desist (from Unbelief), their past would be forgiven them but if they persist, the punishment of those before them is already (a matter of warning for them). And fight them on until there is no more tumult or oppression, and there prevail justice and faith in Allah altogether and everywhere but if they cease, verily Allah doth see all that they do. If they refuse, be sure that Allah is your Protector - the best to protect and the best to help.  Qutb (416) goes on to conclude that reasons for jihad which have been described in the above verses are to establish Gods authority on earth to abolish the satanic forces and satanic system of life.These reasons are sufficient for proclaiming jihad.

Towards the end of his essay, Qutb quotes several verses from the Quran (415-16). This writer however was unable to find the first quote as mentioned (3.74-76) by Qutb. The exact quote is For His Mercy He specially chooseth whom He pleaseth for Allah is the Lord of bounties unbounded. There is no mention of jihad in these verses. In his second reference he quotes from the verse, the spoils of war (chapter 8) which talks about the distribution of bounty from war. Here, this cited reference seems more of a warning from God, if read in its proper context. Lastly, he quotes verse number 9.29-32, a critical argument which has been posed against Al-Farags writings.

Interestingly, Qutb never goes into the discussion as to who shall enforce Gods religion on earth or who is qualified enough to assign this important task He also does not shed light on the debate that whoever considers himself pious enough to take up arms for this cause From his writing style it seems that his real motive has political connotations rather then religious fervor.

In conclusion, it is evident from the proponents of military jihad that almost all follow the same line of thinking. Rather, this jihadist thinking has become more narrow minded and intolerant in some ways. If we look deeper into this rationale it seems that the movement of modern jihadist thinking started from Qutb, who included quotes from the Quran to a social and political cause in order to make his argument to the Muslims living in Egypt but the fact remains that Qutub was primarily concerned with his part of the world (the enemy which is near). Next in line comes Al-Farag, who is also restricts himself to fight enemies of Islam which are physically near. Al-Farag extensively quotes from the Quran and the Hadith to give his cause a religious color but his arguments are certainly questionable, if not far fetched. Al-Farag is followed by Al-Azzam, who can be termed as the godfather of Al-Qaeda and the Taliban.

According to him there is no distinction between the enemies who are far or near, instead he chose to fight an enemy afar in Afghanistan. What is really alarming about his rationale is that nowhere in his essay does he debate on counter arguments, rather he seems to issues a religious decree to fellow Arabs to fight the infidels in Afghanistan. Moreover, he seems to instruct his followers not to get into any debate with the opponents of military jihad saying who ever may do so shall commit a despicable sin.

Islam Comparative Essay

The Muslims have a strong belief that the Koran is constituted of the universal imperatives that all humans are supposed to fulfill. They are given freely to all of us at birth bearing a primordial nature and include all the obligatory cognitions and volitions to fulfill the laws of humanity and to recognize and give service to God (Brinkley, 1993). It is up to everyone to study what the Koran requires of human beings and embrace it through the service to God and the humanity.

There is a popular belief that there is only one true religion and that other traditions and canons are valueless and false. The antipluralist argument can thus be reframed as there is no religion which supports the view constitutive, redemptive, revealed truths can value any religion that contradicts the believes. Therefore any religion views itself as the only true religion and ascribes no value to the others (Brinkley, 1993).

The presented documents support different viewpoints, the one being of the pluralistic nature, and the other advocating for imperialism.

Pluralism
Pluralism does not imply diversity alone, but the energetic engagement with diversity. It was diversity that led to the creation of religious ghettoes with little interaction among them. Islam means not just tolerance, but the active process of seeking understanding across the lines of difference. The text argument in favor of pluralism seems complicated to a certain extent. Some ideas in the text pluralistic, while others oppose the idea of pluralism. However, the text recognizes all sacred books and their messages. Islam defines itself as the last and perfect religion of the Semitic tradition and states that no other religion will be accepted from anybody else other than itself.

The problem of pluralism emerges not at the social cultural level, but at the religious sphere. For example the assertion that, only my religion possesses the intrinsic religious value for attaining religious perfection has basis for the belief that the capacity to lead the believer to the spiritual perfection, privately or publicly to be saved belongs to a single tradition. This contravenes the teachings of any pluralistic religion because in this case it does not give importance to any religion. The question concerns the willingness of the representatives of a certain religion to grant members of other religions the equal level of importance it ascribes to itself.

The article supporting pluralism reiterates that when considering a religion to be pluralistic, then we have to consider if the faith community can accept the idea that other religions have intrinsic spiritual values. This contradicts the text advocating for imperialism as it considers others who proclaim the representatives of other religions as traitors. They should either embrace Islam or there is no reason why they should be left to continue living. This is the major difference between what the two articles are advocating for. It is clearly pointed out that such blending of the religious role with the modern or alien concepts and in this context other religious groups can be highly provocative to the religious thinkers and scholars of the conventional formation. It further notes that some of the hostility cases evidently correlate with the misgivings of the religious allies of the wealthy classes over the radical implications of its teachings. The reason for this is that the Muslims want to safeguard the truth of the Islam teaching.

For the religious pluralism to recapitulate there should be acceptance of the intrinsic redemptive value of the competing religious traditions. This is what is advocated for by the article supporting pluralism, and in this case it is natural that beliefs and values essential to one faith will contravene those of another one. This is the reason for conflict and violence cases, if religious teachings are not articulated with the necessary acumen and practical wisdom in the political domain. The contradiction further widens with the article supporting imperialism, namely, in that the means and relations of production intensify daily, with the gap between the rich and the poor widening constantly. Due to this those who work hard are likely to inherit the kingdom of heaven, and those who do not are likely to perish. It further asserts that capitalism will be destroyed and those who are advocating for the same will be destroyed.

Imperialism
The first text is advocating for imperialism, according to which many of the Muslim clerks and activists strive to impose the Islam law in the whole world. Imperialism in the text is a notion considered to have reached the metaphysical level and is supposed to stop all debates and answer all questions. The writer of the text is trying to explain why Muslims do not dominate the whole world, and emphasizes upon the issue that Islam is always passive and innocent, and the wars that Muslims engage themselves in are aimed to guard the sovereignty of the citizens.

The text is advocating for radicalism, because the imperialistic nature of the Muslims that is highlighted in the text. For example the author writes that what is new in the radical literature is the subordination of scientific understanding of the scripture to the demands of an activist political ideology. For every instance of desacralisation normally this is accompanied by a strong affirmation of the supremacy of God and His will to dispel any accusation of blasphemy or heresy against its authors.

Ideologies of Marxism
One of the texts connotes that the Marxist ideas are equivalent to the secular, political system of beliefs, since in the classical Persian the compound is more suggestive of a mind which is preoccupied with material world rather than the spiritual world. It contravenes its assertion that those who do not work hard and do not get as much property as possible are likely to perish. In the same light it also advocates for individualism in that God is not many but one, so it is important that a person leads hisher life and does not care about others in the society. The text goes further to assert that exercises in reconciling Islam with Marxism have never been explicit since their initiators have been wiser than that, making sure that the synthesis they seek always takes an implicit, piecemeal and abstruse form. This implies that they do not want to hear anything about the ideas of Marxism. The term Islamic Marxism is used to designate the synthesis which is a ploy used by the Islamic adversaries to discrete its eyes on Islamic traditionalists. The other text contains no information about ideas to do with Marxism which is obviously a difference between the two texts.

Jihad
The first text is advocating for jihad against those who do not embrace Islam as a religion. In 1967, for example, there was war for six days because of Islamic socialism and political exigencies of officialdom, but also of an innovation hitherto unthinkable in Islamic context- reconciliation with Marxism. The wars were based on the matters of faith, but they used a different issue to bring out their dissatisfaction on those people who embrace Islamic religion.

Concerning the second text, there is no explicit mentioning of jihad against non believers and this serves as a theological justification for territorial expansion of the Muslim political power. The Muslim jurists, as Tabari connotes that it was not made a precondition for the non-Muslims among the monotheists to convert to Islam to avoid the outright warfare. However, there was a tacit endorsement of the Korans Recognition of the salvific efficacy of the other religions although unbelievers other than monotheists had to accept Islam to avoid blood shed. In this case those who embraced any religion apart from Islam were just to accept the Koran as they have appreciated their religious readings. But those who embraced no religion were to be killed. There is a difference here at the same time we have a similarity, in that the second text recognizes the importance of other religions but despises those who do not embrace any religion. The similarity is that in both approaches there is war against those who do not embrace any religion.

Similarities
The human will to struggle
Both texts support those work very hard to earn the daily bread. According to the first text, the indispensability of the human will and struggle is stressed to underline the new philosophy and the Islamic socialism and all the fatalistic but secularist ideologies which preach faith in a historical necessity in determinism guaranteeing the ultimate victory of the oppressed. However the impression is of syncretism of religion and politics where there is a visible slant towards the latter. Therefore, even if Islam advocates for socialism, still there is room for one to work hard and Islam will nourish one in terms of faith and not providing the daily bread. The writer further asserts that the socialism in Islam is like mere politicking because it does not exist and one has to work hard to get what one can call hisher own. The other text also puts it clearly that those people who do not work hard should not consider themselves to inherit the kingdom of God, rather they will perish. So on the matter of working to accumulate the worldly wealth, the two texts advocate for the same.

Islamic law
Sharia aims to protect the interests of the Muslim society. The first text does not mention anything directly about the law in Islam, but the number of wars that are witnessed are within the law because it is like they are fighting others because they are not adhering to the law. For example the explanation that most adherents of the outlook have been profoundly inspired by the idealism of Ali Shariat (1933-77), the most popular mentor of Islamic radicalism in modern Iran. He was also very instrumental in the formation of the militant Islam and this cannot be performed in absence of law.

Concerning the second text, the Islamic traditionalists support the viewpoint that the Islamic law as it was formulated by the jurists was strict in conformity with the divine as stipulated by the Koran and tradition. The humans need to be an ideal government that can hardly be fulfilled in particular political practices of the past cannot be modified to bring them with the mores of the present. This implies that the law should not be questioned in any way and it is there to be adhered to.

Service to God
Both texts advocate for the service to God, as He is the creator of the universe and all that is in it. As in the illustration in the first text that as well as the divine testimony, a Quranic verse is quoted, and we are minded to show favour to those who were brought low in the land, and to make them spiritual chiefs and to make them heirs (285). This is enough evidence that all Muslims should be committed in doing the will of Allah.

The second text also is geared on reminding the Muslims of the need to serve Allah. The Korans pluralistic theology of the other does not view interfaith relations as a divinely ordained system of human coexistence. Its narrative of sacred history is genuinely inclusive, starting with the first human couple who inaugurated the human journey towards the creation of an ideal society on earth. humankind, be aware of your duties to your Lord, who created you from a single soul, and from it created its mate, and from the pair scattered them abroad many men and women (K. 4 1). This shows that the sole purpose as to why Muslims were created is to serve God and help Him to fill the whole earth.

Islamic vocabulary
There is an obvious similarity between the two texts that they have borrowed vocabulary heavily from the Islamic language. The two texts have also cited much the holy book to give back up to some of the sentiments that they are expressing. In the texts they have also praised Islam as a religion and both of them show that there is the commitment to make sure that all people follow some religion and, if possible, Islam. There is a belief that the Koran is freely given to us and our function as the adherents and followers is to live by the teachings of the Koran as that is the will of God. The core of the Islamic fundamentalism is the religious idealism that promises its followers that once the Islamic norm prevails, it will dramatically sweep away the manifold social, political and moral problems facing the world today.

The Doctrine of Trinity and the Arian Heresy

Explain how the doctrine of the Trinity affirmed differs from the Arian heresy

The doctrine was indeed affirmed in the council meeting in Nicea through the creed formulated by the delegates in that meeting intended to hammer out issues dividing Christianity during the early part of the third century. The affirmation begins with I believe thus, the affirmation of the doctrine of the Trinity based on the creeds formulated by the Nicean Council is as follows, I believe in God the Father, maker of heaven and earth, and in Jesus Christ, the only begotten son of God, not made, God of God , true God of true God , I believe in the Holy Ghost, the lord and giver of life who proceeds from the father and the son  (p. 431). This affirmation demonstrates the Christian teaching about Gods revelation of himself in relation to humanity in three distinct but equal persons. That is, the person of God the Father (Maker of heaven and earth), the person of the son (by whom all things were made including humans, was the incarnate deity who was crucified dead and buried for the salvation of humanity), and finally, the Holy Spirit (the giver of life).

But this affirmation of the doctrine of the Trinity was simply in response to various doctrinal positions that arise during this meeting especially to the Arian doctrinal controversy. Arius, an elder in the Alexandrian church held that the Father, the Son, and the Holy Sprit are not equally divine but were of similar nature. Arius views therefore relegated the position of Jesus Christ and the Holy Spirit subordinate to the father. Thus by ranking, the Father is almighty God, Jesus Christ is one step lower than the father, and the Holy Spirit is one step lower than the son and twice lower to the father.

The striking differences therefore between these two doctrinal positions as depicted in the creed formulated in the Nicean Council, were that in the Trinitarian doctrine, God is one but he reveals himself in three distinct persons. In matters of human physical, moral, social, and spiritual needs and accountabilities, God deals with humanity through his divine person as a father. In matters of human salvation, forgiveness of sins, and justification, God deal with all these through the divine person of the son. While in matters of spiritual strength, spiritual life, sustaining grace of God, and in enabling Christian to maintain their justified life, God deals with all these through the divine person of the Holy Spirit. Arius on the hand do not have much explanation except to emphasized that the son, and the Holy Spirit were lesser deities compared to the father, it was this reason  Arius was condemned as heretic. The Trinitarian doctrine differs to Arian heresy in the context of how God deals with humanity pertaining to his physical and spiritual condition.

How the opening verses of John provide support for the Trinitarian view
Apparently, this opening verse of the Gospel of John was an introduction pertaining to the Jesus Christ as the only begotten son of God, in the light of chapter 1 14. In these opening verses, the author of this gospel revealed one of the most important doctrines that could have never been known, its the divine relationship of the son with the father that ultimately confirms the doctrine of the Trinity. First, the writer depicted that the Word (refers to son, 114) was the same substance with father and co-eternal with the father. Second, verse 3 states that all things were made through him. This conforms exactly to the Trinitarian view as it confirms that Jesus was co-equal with the father in terms of power. God cannot create anything with out the word or in other words, the son. Although the Holy Spirit was not mentioned in the opening verse perhaps due to unconsummated function at the moment, (I mean the role Holy Spirit came after Christ crucifixion) but he was introduced by Jesus Christ in the latter part of the gospel as his substitute that will guide Christians towards the final consummations of Gods plan of salvation. That is, the Holy Spirit is co-equal with Jesus Christ and the father.

EARLY CHRISTIANITY

The coming of Jesus marked the period of early Christianity and served as an important part of the religious history of Christians. Prior to this period, there are events that prepared the world for the coming of Jesus. The events are existing in the society during that time and paved the way for the structure of early Christianity, which lasted for around three centuries. These events are related to the existence of the Roman Empire, the presence of a Greek language, the deterioration of philosophical tenets, low levels of morality, and fatalism.

First, the establishment of the Roman Empire allowed the establishment of a physical environment that is conducive for the dissemination of the gospel. Through the empire, the means of communication are enhanced for messages to travel faster and more effectively. The modes of transportation and travel also allowed for the movement from one area to another in a safer and more convenient means.

Second, the Greek language allowed for a dominant language to emerge, which can be used for the oral and written communication of the Christians. The ability to communicate with one another using a single language allowed for better understanding among the members. Third, the existing philosophies offered by the Greeks and the Roman gods could not cope with the need for faith and belief that disturbed the people at that time. Likewise, people lost their interest over the traditional means offered in Judaism. Fourth, there existed an atmosphere of low morale that affected the people in relation to the existence of slaves and masters. Fifth, the characteristics of fatalism and despair that existed in the East affected the West that left little hope for the people in life or post-death.

All of the five factors mentioned played significant roles that prepared the world for the period of early Christianity. A large part of the preparation is related to the communication, transportation, and the faith of the people. Through these events and issues, early Christianity is able to take over a larger part of the society.

God in the Wasteland The Reality of Truth in a World of Fading Dreams

Author David F. Wells

There is a saying and belief that is ever in the hearts and minds of all saints. Every Christian nurture and cherish the belief that the glory of the latter church will be greater than that of the former church. It is true that many Christians and especially Pentecostals belief that the glory is here but the time has changed and the contemporary world has become more and more dynamic. The church is also growing and creating room for more criticism. It is becoming more and more liberal and therefore allowing the world to have an upper hand in both social and religious matters. This leaves one asking, where is Christ There is a need for Christ to come and save the drowning church.

The church is engaged in a tag of war with the ever emerging doctrines. Most of these doctrines are either as a result of failure to read the word or reading it upside down. All in all the church should devise means and or ways of counter attacking culture and the doctrines which come along with traditions. The church should also lead people back to the God of mercy and truth. The gospel of Christ has really been watered at the expense of petty demands. The church needs to define its boundaries and stop taking people back to cross. Jesus died once for all mankind and going back to Calvary is a shame.
 
The book, God in the Wasteland The Reality of Truth in a World of Fading Dreams is a follow-up of Wells famous book No Place for Truth. In God in the Wasteland, the author is calling upon the western church to go back to where they left the good way and recollect themselves and start upholding the truth of the gospel. According to the author the church is much in and to the things of the west without much regard to effects of watering the gospel which are long-term. The author says that the church is absolutely entangled by civilization and makes use of data sampled from seminarians to substantiate that there is a likelihood of returning to basics of evangelism.

Wells manages to successfully take the audience of the book on a tour that unfolds with decrease of the church into civilization, a vivid look into whatever the society considers it is after, and closes with a promoting view of church leaders in generations to come. The author asserts that the modern-day church is lame because it has drastically failed in the things of holiness and Gods sovereignty. Wells is quick to mention the fact that God is just an afterthought to the modern saints. He uses the term weightless to describe the state of their faith to God. The author says that the focus and character of the church and its ministries are no longer under the authority of God. Escaping modernity is not a reliable indication that the evangelical world has reformed. The church needs to actually cast modernity out of its boundaries.

The liberal society has undergone transition from civilization to post civilization in a more drastic style. The church has allowed entire truth and faith to be replaced by just mere fleeting times of personal satisfaction and which is characterized by magnificent and enticing marketing exposition. To put the message across, Wells referenced Norman Cantor in highlighting out three primary developments that have induced the feeling that God is no longer necessary. Cantor says that advance in computer technology, biotechnology and the availability of instantaneous communication. The three have had a tremendous influence on the transfer of western traditions away from the God of truth and grace. There is a lot of belief on people and unprofitable things.

According to Wells, postmodernism has impacted the culture and particularly ones feeling to God in a negative way. The author after successfully launching his mission and purpose of the book, he opens an interactive discussion concerning the thoughts people have towards what they want in this life. Wells says that many of the modern-day saints has turned out to be just but Sunday worshipers, availing themselves only on Sundays and when there are special services and occasions. The author goes ahead to highlight instances in which the society is willing to accept only the things that it wants. The society moves on to determine how and when it wants it. This leaves no place for the church in the society and more so in the hearts of people. Even in the church set up, the ministers has been turned to mere objects being tossed here and there by the congregation. He goes deep to say, Malls are monuments of consumption-however so are big churches. The churches have been either knowingly or unknowingly slide in the trap of searching to find what are peoples tastes and preferences and therefore manipulate their gospel and ministry work to basically that.

Similarly, Wells brings about difference between being outside and inside God. Modern-day Christians are absolutely isolating some areas of their personal lives and choose how deeper God will have to go both in their spiritual and physical life.Wells notes that people have believed God so that they can use rather than obey him. They have believed a God so that he may fulfill they needs rather than one before whom they should yield they rights.

The book ends with a promotion to Christians. This is after illustrating the extent into which the church has fallen into civilization and liberalization. The author also shares the domino effect of an investigation that interviewed modern seminarians to make out how imperative religious studies are to them, how they consider the idea and nature of the house of worship, and how religion affect their daily lives. The outcome was very hopeful since a good number of them indicated an immense reverence for religion in all dimensions of their individual lives on top of hurry for the house of worship to repossess its image and nature from the influence of humanity. Wells folds his work by highlighting that the sole way for the house of worship to go back to position where Gods reality is taught boldly is just by the willingness of Christians to embrace the dominion of God and the reality of the gospel.

Wells warn people that abiding to such dwindling trend will ultimately lead to the collapse of supreme truth of God. The book is like a signal to all saints regarding the modern predicament facing evangelicalism. The author notes that the seminarians are geared up to lead churches with no different spirituality of their own. Several of them come from complicated upbringings and therefore are even using the house of worship as a chance to run away from reality.According to wells, trouble is that a lot of believers do allow celebrity Christian speakers and authors to form their view of the world rather than going deep into the word of God, which was inspired directly by the God that formed the world.
The sole way for the church to pick up and regain the truths of the maker is for believers to stand firm forever and proclaim that enough is enough. People are beginning to witness this happening in the community. Church planting has turned out to be very fashionable in the past years. Church leaders are planting churches for a various objectives. Expectantly their ideal goal is to reach majority with the word of God. Though, its known that many people are doing so out of an aggravation from their existing church or just the entire church in general (Erickson, 1998). According to wells, the churches planted are typically identified by the society as places to wear expensive attires and praise God with mere words. In cases the gospel is purposely communicated as flashy videos and sound bites. On the other hand, Wells admits that there is an increasing trend in the number of traditional Bible-believing churches that are being started by pastors who have the zeal to go back to preaching the Word of God rather than just focusing on what one can get from preaching.

Wells ends the book by highlighting that it is not that easy to recover the church from the grip of civilization and the sense of good virtues the house of worship has been peddling for several decades. He is calling those in headships to put into task and decline to find the middle ground any more in the matters of sovereignty and the holiness of God and the absolute truth of his word. In the last chapter of the book, the author again restates his idea for writing the book.

He says that he has written the book since, like the scholars who took part in their survey process, he believes the image of the evangelical church is now misted up, its interior life very much destabilized, its prospect very vague, and he wants something enhanced for the church. All along the book, Wells proved his purpose and therefore leaves no doubt that the house of worship is in grave difficulty if it continues to do and react in the same manner. Wells makes use of both empirical data and theory to prove his purpose. Conversely, the author uses quotes from the bible to show the timelessness of the gospel and the pressing need for the church to go back to the scriptures. The plan of God is for the church to be the source of truth and at the same time be a chance for Christians to be educated so that they may live, act and react to situations within the confines of the bible.

A Defense of Positivism

Positivism is defined as the philosophical science and the perspective that makes one hold on to the actual experiences.  It is a knowledge theory based on observational sciences.  Its aim was to study the regularities of events and the regulations that could be used to make a better society. However, this was disputed in argument that human nature is indeterminate to external laws thus investigations shouldnt be guided by human behavior and the surrounding events.

The interpretive accounts are also against positivism because they state that a distinctive separation between value judgments and impartiality should always exist.  The critical theory however disputes the positivism theories by arguing that they are alternative replacement to the already founded order (Turner, 1985).  That is, the functionalism of the existing systems will be impaired upon embracing positivism.

Defense positivism has rejected the core aim of the introduction of positivism and allowed the pluralism of methodological approaches unlike unity which was supported by positivism.  With this kind of rejection, there is an increased rate of ideological war rather than the physical fight.  The European unions especially those under communism like the Soviet Unions as well as the Eastern Europe have instead faced defeat, while the United States and the majority of countries in the Western Europe have enjoyed autonomy and prosperity in the 990s.  Maturity of democracies has been felt to a greater extend and in the second half of the 20th Century, more independent countries were witnessed (Turner, 1985).  Rapid development and more diversified states are also as a result of the anti-positivism that was originally embraced.  However, despite the defense, critics have been very vocal about the criticisms. Indeed, they have not done much of any constructive improvement towards the implementation of the discoveries and theories.

The Importance of Social Sciences

Muqtedar Khan, in The Importance of Social Sciences, discusses the future of the Islamic religion.  He says danger lurks in the perception of general knowledge that the Muslims have assumed to be the Islam knowledge.  There is need for the Muslims to change their perception on the study of social sciences and have the desire to gather more knowledge.

Civilization among the Islam is sluggish.  It is attributed to the loss of creativity and the laggardness in dynamic environment to the visionless Muslim understanding of the power of knowledge. Islam has limited knowledge to the Muslim jurisprudence and law understanding. Islam is said to have neglected social sciences and narrowed scholarly work to the memorization of the Quran thus their intellectuality has declined greatly (Khan, 2006).  Social sciences of different religious groups other than the Islam are found to progress due to their focus on the study of current world situations and their cause for existence unlike the postulation of what should be happening.

American Muslims are a step ahead since their revival in 1980 to study social sciences. The development of china, India and Japan is attributed to the studies carried out by the social sciences in their countries.  The Ulema doctrine has made the Muslim stagnate in olden days traditions instead of the current events (Khan, 2006).

It is suggested that Islamic curriculum be revised in order to empower the young generation of scholars with wider knowledge and development in social sciences.  Fortunately, some of the Muslim scholars now appreciate that Islam has failed in their faith and have surrendered their vision to support humanity and therefore need to research more and accomplish the duty Allah has left to them.

Methods and Perspectives in Islamic Studies

The Vienna circle was a group of philosophers who came together and styled up to form revolutionary concepts in the philosophical academics and thus introduced the concept that metaphysics to be cognitively meaningless, untrue and void.  The groups discussions were based on both academics and public sphere. It was formed between 1920 and 1928. Between 1928 and 1929, the group came public on its roles (Beller, 2001).  There was the scientific understanding theory, which worked on renewal of empirism through the provision of justification in formal sciences other than working on impossible statements.

Despite the fact that philosophical proofs provided for many controversial doctrines in the seemingly boldly claims of the Vienna group, the controversy still ruled and no quick solutions would be arrived at on the critisms. Their philosophies were asymmetrical with the logical empirism after WWII which resulted in the perception of scientific theories. There was a hot debate regarding whether to verify the theories of metaphysics or to falsify them in the universality of the groups study, but this only led to the argument that there should be the partial interpretation of the theories rather than the full discovery of it.  This controversy led to the divide between the conservatives and the Carnap (Beller, 2001). After further discussion, the claims were found too weak to warrant support but conformity.

Further conflict was found to emerge on the disagreement of the language of translation and later on was abandoned hence the collapse of the criterion of demarcation due to the lack of its cognitive significance.  Failure was recorded in the attempts of application of general philosophical analytical concepts in the formal way as applied purely in other areas in order to deduce its meaningfulness.

Constantine and the Christian Movement

The Battle of Milvian Bridge on the 28th of October 312 marked the conversion to Christianity of Constantine, son of St. Helena. Before the historic battle began, Constantine saw a cross above the sun bearing the inscription In this sign, you shall conquer. Carrying this vision, Constantine and his army defeated Emperor Maxentius troop. This victory gave Constantine total control of the Western Roman Empire, making him the sole Emperor from 324 to 337 and paving the way for Christianity as the dominant religion for the Roman Empire, and eventually the whole of Europe. Probably the decree that made the greatest impact on Christianity was the Edict of Milan, given in 313 by Constantine and Lucinius. This announcement granted Christians and non-Christians the freedom to practice their faith without the threat of persecution. They were also allowed to worship God after their own choice. It is also by this decree that churches and places of worship were restored and given back to the Christians without payment. Constantines support to the Christian Church made it possible for the religion to flourish and spread not just in Europe but to the rest of the world as well. Constantine also declared Christian disciplines still applicable up to the present times. The Emperors action, though favorable to the Christians, made it hard for pagans to survive. Constantine became so passionate about Christianity that he felt it necessary to evangelize people and convert them as well. The pagans, due to lack of support, were left with no choice but to close their temples and succumb to Constantines orders.

Though he earlier declared that people have the freedom to practice their religion, Constantines action implied that he wanted Christianity to be the dominant religion. And so it became Europes major armor in conquering and acquiring colonies. The long-term effect of Constantines passion for Christianity is evident in todays world where religion is among the most debated topics. If there is a negative impact of Constantines actions, it would be that Christianity was used by some Europeans to dominate the world. An example of this would be the Philippines who were under the Spaniards for 300 long and suffering years. Though the Filipinos owe their faith and religion to the successors of Constantine, they suffered much inhumanity during the time that they were colonized. Christianity by itself is good and meant to be shared to others, but if the motive is to gain power over these people, then Christianity is not that good at all.

A religion without the element of mystery would not be a religion at all.Edwin Lewis

Christian Belief

The core of Catholic religion is grounded on the belief of the Doctrine of Trinity - One God in Three Divine Persons. The Nicene Creed is the congestion or the summary of what Catholics believe. It attributes qualities of the God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit, said to be three yet one.  To eliminate confusion, authorities stress out the need of faith.  Only faith will hold on to such belief in one God the Father almighty, the maker of all things, Jesus Christ, the begotten son of God and one in substance with the Father, and the Holy Ghost, the lord and giver of life, the one who proceeds from the father and the son.

Arian Heresy
A theological controversy finds parallelism and thus gave birth to Arian heresy. To cite, Arius was a priest from Egypt, and referring to biblical statement, he put forth the view that the Son was created by the Father in time. Further, it claimed that such created Logos took the form of the earthly Jesus to bring saving knowledge, thus there was when he was not and only the Father is truly eternal God (Ludwig, 2006 156).

Doctrine of Trinity and Arian Heresy
In the height of the theological controversies, Arian heresy is a deviation from the Doctrine of Trinity.  While recognizing the existence of earthly Jesus, it is actually grounded on the pure belief that God the Father is the one God. It never mentioned about the Holy Ghost.  Further, this popular Arian view posed danger to Christian faith as recognized by Athanasius and other Christian thinkers, and with the inclination to the highest danger to worship Christ as a being created in time would be to worship a divine being other than the one God (Ludwig, 2006 156). Arian Heresy, if not the only, is one of the reasons why Emperor Constantine pushed to settle the dispute and unify his realm, by convening the Council of Nicea which declared that the Son is true God from true God, begotten, not made, one in being with the Father. To reiterate, the Catholic position is that there is one God in three divine persons  Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. The Trinity is an eternal unity, the Father eternally ingenerate, the Son eternally begotten of the Father, the Holy Spirit eternally proceeding from the Father (Ludwig, 2006 156).

How the opening verses of John provides support for the Trinitarian view.
Significantly, through the use of the logos Word, evident in the line In the beginning was the word and the word was with god and the word was god, the Gospel of John reflects the book of Genesis. Such reflection brings us to the time of creation. Further Genesis 126 And God said, Let us make man to our image and likeness must also be noted. John opens his gospel from a philosophical perspective of the relationships among God, the Word of God, and Jesus. John characterizes Jesus to be already with the father at the time of creation, affirming the Son as being eternally begotten of the Father. To sum it all, Johns use of the logos Word accordingly is the foundation for one of the most influential theories of Christ found in Christianity. It is supportive to the claim on the belief of the Trinity (Ludwig, 2006 156).

History of Christianity of Nicaea Council

The history of the worlds Christian movement shows that Christianity has been the worlds religion shaped and informed through the world, the gospel and the culture of the church. The first council Nicaea was a council of Christian Bishops who convened in the present Turkey by the Roman Emperor Constantine around 325 A.D.  Historically, the council was significant as the initial efforts to attain consensus in the church were initiated through the league of this bishops in the assembly representing all Christendom. This paper seeks to examine the history of Christianity of Nicaea council.

Overview of the Nicaea Council
The constitution of the Nicaea council was built on the ecumenical tenets limiting its jurisdiction of the Roman Empire. In this context, the principle of the council was driven by the claims of Augustine to be the ruler of the world and thus, the earliest extant mandate of the council was to monitor the progress of the Christian community. According to ethnography studies, the first council of Nicaea is considered to have given birth to the ecumenical council of the Christian churches (Lindberg, 2005). Ultimately, this resulted in the fundamental uniformity of Christian doctrine famously known as the creed of Nicaea. The creation of this creed led to the establishment of a precedent for the subsequent council of bishops called synods.

The original motivation of the council of Nicaea was reflected in the council of Bishops which created a statement of belief as well as canons of doctrinal orthodox. Irvin and Suquist (2001) postulate that the intentions behind these doctrines and canons resided in the paradigm of defining unity of beliefs for the entire Christendom. With regard to this, it should be understood that the council did not invent doctrines of the deity of Christ as it is commonly claimed. The invention of the doctrine of deity of Christ was an idea that existed long in the various parts of the Roman Empire. Its entry into Christianity was as a result of its endorsement by the Christian community of the hitherto pagan city of Rome. Essentially, the council of Nicaea affirmed what it found to be the teachings of the apostles considering who Christ is such that Christ is one true God in deity with the Father.

Formation of the Council
The council of Nicaea was formed after Constantine the Great summoned the Bishops of the Christian church to Nicaea to address divisions that were eminent in the church. Therefore, the fist council of Nicaea was then convened by Constantine on the basis of recommendations of the synod in the Eastertide of 325 (Lindberg, 2005). Accordingly, the synod had been charged with the mandate of investigating the trouble brought about by the Arian controversy in the Greek speaking East. With regard to this, the bishops of Nicaea regard the teachings of Arius as heretical as well as dangerous to the salvation of souls. The council of Nicaea was thus formed with Bishops from a wide range of the attending countries.

It is worth noting that the council of Nicaea was the first general council in the history of the church since the apostolic council of Jerusalem. This had established the conditions upon which gentiles could join the church. Irvin and Suquist (2001) claim that the council of Nicaea provided the church with the first great step to defining doctrines more articulately in the light of the challenging heretical theology. Lindberg (2005) further asserts that the teachings as well as the writings of the early church fathers proved challenging for the church especially in defining what was considered the gospel of treachery prior to that council of Nicaea.

Role of the Council
The original purpose of the council of Nicaea was to resolve the disagreements and misunderstanding that arose within the church of Alexandria. According to Lindberg (2005) such disagreements were over the nature of Jesus particularly in regard to the Father, whether Jesus was a symbolic son of God like other Christians or a literal son of God. For example, Athanasius and Alexander of Alexandria took the first position over the Arian controversy. As a result, ruled against the Arians.

In addition, the council became an integral part in resolving cases as to whether Easter should be celebrated as an important feast of the ecclesiastical calendar. As a result, the council decided in favor of celebrating the resurrection of Christ on the first Sunday after the first full moon following the vernal equinox. Lindberg (2005) points out that the council authorized the then Bishop Alexandria using the Alexandrian calendar to announce annually the exact date of celebrate Easter.

Fundamentally, alongside settling disagreements in the church, the council was braced with the task of developing Christology. Through the council of Nicaea, a precedent was set for subsequent councils to adopt cannons and creeds and as a result, this council was generally considered the beginning of the period of the first seven ecumenical councils in the history o the Christianity.

Considering these underlying factors, the controversies in the Christian church especially concerning the mystery of the trinity which began in the second centaury alongside the metaphysical argument to explain the divine nature, led to the constitution of the Nicaea council. Because the emperor Constantine had become the patron of the Christians, he conceived that the controversy could be effectively settled by an assembly of the whole church. With regard to all the unfolding in the church through history, no part of the church history has acquired more celebrity than this council with its effort to settle the affairs of the church.

Although it is still very singular that scarcely a part of the ecclesiastical history has been investigated the ancient theologians have not agreed on the exact place, time and year or even the presidents the council (Irvin and Suquist, 2001).

Lindberg (2005) argue that the question of how many canons or ecclesiastical laws were enacted is not agreed upon by Christians from both eastern and western. With every group of Christians with their different views about the council of Nicaea as regard the canon laws enacted to be precisely twenty in number, the Orientals make them far more numerous. For examples, from the canons that are universally spread, as well as other historical documents of the council, it appears that it is only Arius who was condemned but other things were succinctly decreed to settle the affairs of the church.
The passion of Christians in the early church was more efficient than the decrees of both the council or even the authority of the emperor. Lindberg (2005) argues that it is the council and the emperor who did not fail with the doctrine of the Arius yet they were dissatisfied with certain things in the decree as well as the creed of the Arians. It will be noted that the council left the pedestal on which the current council of the church operates. As such, the Arians left no means untried to free themselves from the evils inflicted on them by the canons and decrees. According to the issue was favorable to their wishes and for a few years after the Nicaea council, an Arian presbyter succeeded in persuading Constantine that Arius had been wrongfully condemned from personal enmity.

Later on after the death of Constantine, one of his sons, became very partial to the Arian cause thus supported the western part which governed every decision of the Nicaea council. As a result, many broils and commotions, plots and injuries ensued and became bound such that both the eastern and western sides had councils being assembled to oppose councils. This revolution became more disastrous to the friends of Nicaea council due to the fact that the emperor was now devoted to the Arians and involved others in numerous evils and calamities by  and by punishments as well as threats, many of them  we re compelled to apostatize to the sect to which the emperor was attached.

Conclusion
The history of Christianity of the council of Nicaea presents the picture of a most stormy period, and of a war among brethren which was carried on without religion or justice or humanity. It was instituted and constituted for the good of Christianity. From the foregoing discussion, it is evident that the council was chiefly assembled to oversee the deliberations of the church especially where there were disagreements over what was to be done in the church. The council particularly led to the renunciation of the Arian doctrine and made efforts for its extirpation among its subjects by means of legal enactments and council. As such, the council of Nicaea facilitated the resolution of faith based controversies within the Christian fraternity.