Religion and Theology

There is no known historical portrait of Jesus as a work of art, no photograph, not even a physical description, although from about the 6th century onwards religious artists were working from a common source, as stated on the web page  Physical descriptions of Jesus, although this page does contain some  non-Christian  sources, which perhaps makes them objective,  such as the letter of Publius Lentellus and that of Pontius Pilate to the Emperor Tiberius but nevertheless much can be learnt about this very special person, the things he did and what he said and thought.
Physically, the Jews of Galilee tended to be taller and fairer than those from Judea in the south, mainly due probably to intermarriage over many years. The Jewish Encyclopedia article by Emil Hirsch describes how as early as Old Testament times the population of this region became greatly mixed and this tendency was increased after the fall of the Ephraimitic kingdom. Though, it must be remembered in earthly terms that Jesus was actually descended from a southern family as stated by Luke ( 2 v 4)-
 Joseph also went up from the town of Nazareth in Galilee to Judea, to
 Bethlehem, the town of David, because he belonged to the house and line of David.
    He was born during the final years of the reign of Herod the Great who died in 4 B.C.E.( Matthew 2 v 1 and 2 v 19.) and died by crucifixion when he was approximately 33 years old ( Luke 23 v 44-49).  Luke gives Jesus an age of about 30 when he began his ministry and by adding up all the various festivals mentioned in the gospels, beginning with the Passover in John 2 v 13 and concluding with a 4th and final Passover recorded in John 19 v 14, an age of about 33 or 34 seems to be correct. He was preceded by his cousin John the Baptist who was likened by the people to Elijah, the Old Testament prophet.
Despite being a descendent of King David, he came from working stock Joseph was a carpenter (Matthew 13 v 55), but the word used is tekton which means rather more  he was a builder of houses and the word is used to describe those who worked in both wood and stone, according to Marcello Craveri in his 1967 work, The life of Jesus ( page 6). Although there is no direct evidence that Jesus was himself a carpenter, it can be inferred from the fact that the custom of the time was for a man to pass on his skills to his sons. Jesus certainly uses building analogies to prove his points when he talks about a house requiring firm foundations ( Matthew 7 v 24-27).
    Although the modern day New Testament has of course a lot to say about Jesus, especially in the descriptions of his ministry recorded by the four evangelists, there are some problems with this and on occasions the chronology varies, this being a relatively minor matter. Although the canon of the New Testament was finally fixed to include or exclude various books, the works that were finally contained are not the only sources that mention Jesus. However, when the canon was finally fixed it was because the books included were considered by the church to be the most helpful and also the most authentic. So, books such as the Gospel of Thomas are not therefore generally considered to have the authority of the gospel records. It does at times however confirm that record, for example in v 20 there is a parable  which is also recorded  in the gospels as it is mentioned by Matthew, Mark and Luke  in the I Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians, mentioned by Bernard Scott in Hear then the parables( 1986, page 342). I Clement 24 v5 includes an obvious allusion to the parable of the sower. (Matthew 13)
The Bible tells us that Jesus was a charismatic man who had close followers such as Peter and his brother (Matthew 4 v 18,19) He also attracted large crowds who would follow him for long distances  - (Matthew 4 v 25). He had an itinerant ministry with no permanent residence as he himself describes in Luke 9 v 58 The birds of the air have nests, but the Son of Man has nowhere to lay his head.
Jesus message was principally concerned with the coming kingdom of God, a spiritual rather than an earthly kingdom,  as noted by E.P.Sanders ( Chapter 11, The Historical Figure of Jesus 1993). He was however much more than an orator, but was also credited with performing many miracles as in Luke 18 v 35-43 where a blind man is given his sight. 
    If this well loved man went about doing so much good why was he crucified His enemies stated that he claimed to be king of the Jews, although Jesus himself stated that his kingdom was not of this world (John 18 v 36). They could not accept him as a prophet because they believed him to be a Galilean ( John 7 v 53, a passage not included in the earliest copies of the Gospel). In John 7 v 40, however, the crowd proclaims that he is even more than a prophet, but the actual Messiah.
    Finally, the Jewish leaders had had enough. They feared Roman retaliation if Jesus, as they thought he might, would began a rebellion. Despite the pleas of the Sanhedrin Pilate who found no fault in him (John 19 v 6 ) yet, because of the strength of the crowd, he handed him over to be crucified. Those are the bare historical facts, but Christians would claim there is much more to it than that, not least the resurrection three days later.
    There are a number of theories as to why Jesus had to die in order to fulfill his purpose. The early Christian hymn quoted by Paul in Philippians 2 v 8 simply records it as an act of obedience to God. It was something he could perhaps have avoided by staying in the north. In Luke 13 v 31 he was warned that Herod (Antipas ) wanted to kill him. In Mark 10 v32-34 Jesus predicts his own death in details, yet he still set off for Jerusalem. Irenaeus in about 180 C.E. stresses victory over evil and the obedience that God requires, and in order to exhibit such obedience, Christ had to live His life through all its stages, not excluding death itself according to the Atonement History web page. Clement says that Christ endured it all on account of us and that His sufferings should bring us to repentance. Anselm in Cur Deus Homo (Chapter 6) related it to ideas of honor payments with which he was familiar. Abelard in the 12th century stressed his example, a theory known as the moral one. Luther, according to George Carey, (page 330) veered towards the idea of Jesus paying a ransom to the devil, a once and for all payment and sacrifice for sin.  The commonest atonement idea is that in some mystical way the death of Jesus was necessary in order to restore Gods relationship with his creation as described by George Carey, page 328 in his work A New Creation. Paul, in Romans 3 v 24,25 points to his seeing it as an act of redemption, a payment for freedom, as when a slave is freed, a payment necessary because God is a God of justice.
One of the most important things about Jesus was the influence he had and continues to have on others. Many would agree that this was no ordinary man, even if they 
would hesitate to claim, as Christians do,  that he was the Son of God  or that he was the Messiah long predicted, as in Malachi 3 v 1
I will send my messenger, who will prepare the way before me. Then suddenly the Lord you are seeking will appear in his temple.
    Men, such as Peter and Paul, were transformed  Peter from being so terrified that he denied even knowing  his Lord (John 18 v 15-17) , yet only weeks later he is willing to stand in front of a huge crowd, right in the center of Jerusalem (Acts 2 v 14 ) and proclaim the good news of Jesus Christ. He has become known down the ages as the Rock upon which Christ built his church. Paul had been a persecutor of the church as described in Acts 9, but on having a vision of the risen Christ he was transformed into the Apostle to the Gentiles.
    We can read descriptions by his contemporaries as (John 1 v 29) when John the Baptist points out his cousin as The Lamb of God, an image the Jews would have been familiar with, as the Messiah is described as a sheep led to the slaughter in Isaiah.( Isaiah 53 v 7). In Revelation 15 v 3, John points to Jesus as not just being  a good man who lived long ago, but as King of the Ages. The writer to the Hebrews calls him The Great High Priest i.e. not only the one who makes sacrifices on behalf of the people, but also the one who has closest access to God the Father.
    Finally, how did Jesus describe himself In John 6 v35 he says he is The bread of life i.e. the means of life being sustained in the world.  In John 15 v 1, he describes himself as The True Vine i.e. the source of all spiritual fruit. In John 8 v 12 he says
     I am the light of the world. Whoever follows me will never walk in darkness,
 but will have the light of life.
    This was a light that not only showed men what God was like, as he told the Pharisees when he said If you knew me you would know the Father (John  8 v 19) but also shone into dark corners revealing sin wherever it lay.
    Christians believe, as for example the evangelist Saint John, that the gospels were written
    That you may believe that Jesus is the Son of God, and that by believing 
you may have life in his name.( John 20 v 31, N.I.V.)

Matthew and Mark were both disciples of Christ. Just like humans, though they lived with Christ and were able to learn from Him, their recollection of things was not the same. Not that any was wrong, but this shows not two people can see the same a situation the same.
1. Five ways in which Matthew has revised material taken over from mark and give an example in each one.
    During the scene on His baptism, Matthew has chosen to give us the words spoken between John and Jesus where as Mark went straight to the baptism itself. Matthew takes time to explain and bring out the details of every encounter Jesus had. When healing the leper (Math81-4, Mk140-44), Matthew has revised this by not excluding the part where the crowd was following Him everywhere.
2, Give three examples of Mts emphasis on judgement. To whom is the warning about judgement directed in each example
In the parable of the healing of he paralytic (Mk21-112, Math91-8) Matthew takes this passage and condenses it bring out the people understanding that it is God who was working in Jesus by giving him authority to forgive sins. When asked about fasting (Mk218-22, Math914-17) Matthew brings out the fact that the old and the new both have use. That the reason new wine is poured in new wine skins is for preservation. When documenting on the calling of the disciples (Mk316-19, Math101-42) Matthew takes time to clearly what Jesus is asking of his disciple. He outlines to his readers in details exactly what Jesus expected of His disciples. When encountered by an evil spirit (Math1225-29, Mk323-27) Matthew brings out clearly the point that all our actions will be judged.
    In Matthew 1015 he is again reminding those that choose not to turn from their debaucheries, on the judgement day things will not be very good. That in truth Sodom and Gomorrah will look like a walk in the park. In 1218, he speaks to remind all people about the word of prophet Isaiah concerning Christ. Who he is before God and what he will do to all people. In 12 41-42 he speaks to all who refuse to repent even though they are made aware of their sins.
3, Give three examples of Jesus as true interpreter of the law. To whom is the warning about judgement directed in each example
    On three instances Jesus is shown to be the true interpreter of the law. Firstly when asked by the Pharisees and teachers of the law about cleanliness and uncleanliness (Math151-20), in this case he was warning people to watch their spoken word and by extension their hearts. During His transfiguration (Math171-13), Jesus clearly tells his disciples and by extension us today to stop judging situations for even we do not seem to know the truth. When asked about the greatest commandment (Math2236-37) he warned all that without love there were not going to achieve much. This was the root of all things good.
4. Give three examples in which Matthew has shifted Marks picture of Jesus disciples away from misunderstanding an fear . What characteristic has Matthew given the disciples in his portrayal
    Instead of portraying the disciples as afraid (Mk 435-41) they are portrayed as amazed (Math823-28), where Mark in (932) calls them afraid, Matthew says they were filled with grief (1723). 
5. How does Matthew use the warnings against the hypocrites (Pharisees)to address dangers within the Christian community
    Matthew uses warnings against hypocrites twelve time in his gospel (Math62, 65, 616, 157, 2218, 2313, 2315, 2323, 2325, 2327, 2329, 2451). In all this times, he addresses the dangers of been showbiz Christians. He acknowledges the danger that is real in people who chose to do things because they can be seen and yet they have the wrong motive. He warns the Christian community to be on guard since no one can see the heart to know the motivation behind good deeds. But instead to always strive to do good.
6. Using a concordance find the passages in which Matthew uses the verb to fulfil . What do these passages tell the reader of the gospel about Jesus
    Matthew has used  to fulfil seven times (Math122, 315, 414, 517, 817, 1217  214). In all this passages, it is clear to the reader that Jesus understand that nothing He did was for His sake. That all he did was in order to accomplish and allow passing what had been said by others. He was giving credence to the words of others.
7. Using gospel parallels, study the five sermons in mts Gospel. How has Matthew brought together traditional material in each case How do the concluding warnings about judgement fit in with the teaching given in each sermon
    Jesus chose to use what the people could easily identity with. He used readily available example when teaching. When He concluded a teaching, the underlying fact in all is that the analogy He gave was not out the world. But rather, it was one all could identify with. That is why it was so easy for the people to call him teacher.

Both Gnostics and more orthodox Christians were around at the same time and in the same places during the churches early centuries. There were similarities. Both called themselves Christians and both  believed in God, but while both Jews and Christians believe that created humanity is of necessity separated from its creator, by the very nature of their being s and that God, due to his special characteristics, is wholly other. Gnostics would contradict this view. They held instead that self- knowledge is knowledge of God and that man and God are one.
According to the Gnostic gospels Jesus, instead of preaching about sin and repentance as described in the New Testament gospels, in Gnostic texts speaks instead about illusion and enlightenment. They see Jesus, not as a Savior from sin, but as a guide to deeper and greater spiritual understanding. However when this enlightenment has taken place they claim that  Jesus is no longer the spiritual master, but rather that master and former disciple have equal knowledge and so have become equal, even, as described by Elaine Pagels, have become identical. She goes on to point out  how mainstream Christians believe that Jesus the  unique and only Son of God and, although for a time he took human form, as described in the ancient hymn quoted  in Philippians 2, yet  he remains eternally distinct, from the rest of mankind  for whose salvation he came.. Pagels tells how, in Gnostic Gospel of Thomas, as soon as Thomas recognizes Him Jesus  says to Thomas that they  both have received their being from an identical  source. The implication is that they are equal and are therefore both created beings, whereas John 1 teaches in its first verses that the Word, i.e. Jesus Christ, was there from the beginning and The Word was with God, and the Word was God. Gnostics considered themselves to be Christians, but without doubt held and expressed ideas that the majority abhorred. For example, some of these Gnostic texts celebrate the feminine element in the divine, that is they thought of God both as Father and Mother. They also suggested in some that the resurrection of Christ  was to be understood as symbol and not as literal fact, whereas the New Testament speaks of a very real death and resurrection and as this being  a promise of Christians also, on e day, receiving the gift of eternal life as in Romans 10 v 9.
Some of the writings even denounce non-Gnostic Christians themselves as heretical because they did not have the same understanding of the mysteries that the Gnostics had an understanding that the Gnostics believed belonged to them alone.
Over the centuries Christianity has become diverse, Roman Catholics, the various Orthodox churches and Protestism, but in some things they are more united than were believers in the early years. What ever the differences, especially in practice amongst these various groups they do all accept the canon of the New Testament and share in common the Apostolic creed as a basis of belief, but these only  came about  in their present and final  form towards the close of the second century C.E.
The Gnostic Gospels
In Upper Egypt in 1945 The Nag Hammadi Library was discovered. This is a collection of thirteen ancient codices made up of over fifty texts including the Gnostic gospels of Thomas, Phillip and the Gospel of Truth. These writings were known to have existed from early references to them in Christian writings, but it was previously thought  to have been destroyed during the Churches early years when it was still  struggling to divine itself and its beliefs. These documents are very early. The web page of the Gnostic Society Library The Gospel of Thomas Collection claims that it is possible that Thomass gospel may even have been written before the works of the four gospel writers included in the New Testament. They make claims to Apostolic authority as in The Gospel of Thomas and that entitled The Acts of Peter and the Twelve Apostles. Many of the claims included seem quite reasonable as when Thomas claims to have had private conversations with Jesus , something that surely did occur during the three years they spent in each others company, or when the Acts of Peter has in its first paragraph the words-
    And in our hearts, we were united. We agreed to fulfill the ministry to which
 the Lord appointed us. And we made a covenant with each other.
 When the Canon of New Testament writings was finally settled the word canon literally meant  a guideline , that is a plumb line against which to measure both doctrine and church practices. The Gnostics on the other hand seemed to make things up as they went along to a certain extent. Pagels quotes ( page 33) Tertullian of Carthage, born late in the second century who, describing the Gnostics, said -
Every one of them, just as it suits his own temperament, modifies the traditions
he has received, just as the one who handed them down modified them, when he shaped them according to his own will.
And so things the church held as true were gradually distorted, as speech is  in a game of Chinese whispers.
The books now included in the New Testament were not included simply because of who wrote them but because the church looked upon them as being divinely inspired. Their innate spiritual worth as well as the facts they contained was recognized. The Gnostic texts were well known, as Irenaeus, an early church historian stated, but were not generally considered to be of similar worth and so they were not included and eventually disappeared. The idea that authority  was passed down the church over the years , and that this originated from the apostles who witnessed the Resurrected Christ and were commissioned by Him to spread the Gospel, ( Matthew 28 v 18-20) was vital to the integrity of  the structure of the church. Having people who called themselves Christians, yet  who openly claimed that the Resurrection did not really occur and who described it, according to Pagels ( pages 10, 11 as the gospel of fools made life very difficult for the church. Also there would have been those who believed the Gnostic teaching, but were unable, for whatever reason, to live the Gnostic life, and so must have felt that their faith was second rate. They were relying upon the works or practices of man such as ceremonial washing and fasting, rather than accepting the power of God for their salvation. Yet Paul says in Galatians 2 v 16 , and in many other places that only by faith in Jesus as Savior can a man be justified.
The Implications of Mortal Man Having Divine Knowledge.
God  has many attributes  as described in the pages of the Bible  - Omnipresence, ( Isaiah 66 v 1)omnipotence ( Luke 1 v 37), impartiality ( Job 34 v 19) and so on. One of these attributes is Gods Omniscience ( Hebrews 4 v 13). All knowledge  it seems impossible that any mere human mind could cope with all the knowledge that God has  knowledge that transcends time. Such a person would have a knowledge of the future as well as the past. They would know everything about everyone and every atom.   This is impossible. What the Gnostics were perhaps referring to was knowledge of God, rather than knowledge as God This, in Christian circles, is a gradual awareness that grows over time, but on earth will always be incomplete.. Gnostics on the other hand implied that this sort of knowledge could be obtained as long as one followed certain practices. This idea that they had special knowledge would have made them feel superior to everyone else,  that their way was better than that of mainstream Christianity and would ultimately have a negative effect if  all believers felt that they could only progress in their faith by following Gnostic practices. This negativism would eventually also affect the Gnostics when they finally realized their own mortality.
Can modern Christianity benefit from Christian mysticism
The term Christian  HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiMysticism o Mysticism mysticism refers to the deliberate  pursuit of communion with the Christian God. Some however would claim that mysticism aims at unity with God though some great spiritual experience, but this would be a minority view. Mysticism  usually centers upon practices designed  to nurture such experiences of God such as   HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiChristian_meditation o Christian meditation meditation, fasting and   HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiContemplation o Contemplation contemplation of Jesus or the Holy Spirit. This approach to Chrisitanity  and lifestyle is helpful to many on their spiritual path through  life , but few modern day Christians would claim that any insight gained means that they are so united with God that they become part of him, become gods in fact. Such ideas are not taught in Christian  scriptures, where  the Lordship and special nature of Christ are emphsized and men and women are described as the children of God. In Romans 4 v 11 God is described as the Father of us all and in I John 3  v1 believers are described as children of God. The New Testament does not promise unity with God

Imam Al-Shafii is a man who has left a permanent mark on the world, so much so that he is still remembered more than a millennium after his death. He is the founder of one of the four schools of judicial law that arose in Sunni Islam. His legacy is that of a more balanced and well thought out process of law, one that attempts to stray from the other schools of law that employ personal judgment quite heavily in the course of legal decision making. Born in 767 in Gaza, Al-Shafii was said to have memorized the entire Quran by the age of seven (Ahmed, 2009). Sadly enough, his biography is at best an incomplete one, filled with a great deal of fantastical details that never could have actually happened. The details that are known however are that he did rise very quickly through the ranks of judicial branch in his area, and was respected by many while despised by others. His contribution not only to Islamic law, but to secular law as well is an enduring legacy.

    Unfortunately, Al-Shafiis school of religious law has fallen out of popularity with the contemporary Muslim world at large. More progressive adherents to Islam are often followers of Al-Shafiis school of law. Much of the Islamic world now follows much more conservative precedents. These sects of Islam take the word of Muhammad and interpret it literally with no recourse to critical consideration or interpretation. This has been and will continue to be a source of conflict between Al-Shafii Muslims and other less progressive Muslims. For a long time however, mostly during the Islamic golden age, Al-Shafii law was the premiere way of settling disputes. The Imam differed from the more commonplace Sunni fundamentalism in that he did not stress a literal interpretation of the Quran, but rather its underlying universal principles. He further differentiated himself from mainstream Islam by asserting that there were four pillars that were necessary to making an informed and correct judicial decision, all of the judicial systems at that time only at most suggested that there were two. The four pillars that Al-Shafii laid down were The Quran, The sunna, qiyas, and ijma (Delstone, 2009). The Quran is the common ground on which all Muslim law stands. Every branch of Islam looks to it as their primary source of religious insight and rules. This makes sense, as it is the holy text of the religion and was supposedly written by Muhammad himself. It is from the Quran that Al-Shafii drew the actual statements made by Muhammad that govern Muslim law. The differences in opinion between the different sects of Islam occur when religious scholars have differences in opinion in the interpretation of these texts. No one Islamic scholar is going to look at the Quran and see the same thing. It will speak differently to everyone, and this is evident in the creation of so many different Islamic subgroups (Kelsay, pg. 104).

    The Sunna of the prophet (more commonly referred to merely as sunna), which is the second pillar of Al-Shafii judicial law, has to do specifically with the way Muhammad went about life. As the last messenger of God, Muhammad (570-632) brought the Quranic teachings to life through his interpretation and implementation as leader of the Muslim community. The sunna of the Prophet generally means tradition and includes the following three categories sayings of the Prophet his deeds and his silent or tacit approval of certain acts which he had knowledge of. The record of the Prophets words and deeds were recorded in narrative ahadith, reports that were transmitted before finally being compiled in authoritative collections decades after the death of the ProphetIn the first centuries of Islam, it should finally be stressed that there was no suggestion, at this stage, that the Prophet was other than a human interpreter of the divine revelation his authority lay in the fact that he was the closest, in time and spirit, to the Quran and as such was the ultimate starting-point of the Islamic sunna(Contemporary Womens Issues Database, 2009). So the sunna is the way Muhammad went about living his life. Being the prophet of god, Muhammad is viewed as being the most pious of individuals by Islam. His actions and words are considered to be good archetypes for how Muslims should go about living their lives. The more one imitates the prophets actions and sayings, the closer a person can be to god. Sunna is another more common pillar of Islamic law, as it is implemented by multiple different schools of thought. Al-Shafii did place new interpretations on the tenant, making it his own. He also placed a much greater importance of the sunna, raising it to the importance of Quran, which had previously trumped the sunna when it came to importance of interpretation (Makdisi, pg. 12). He stated that he sought to create a balance between what the Quran said and what the sunna suggested. By this he tempered his actions combining Muhammads rarified teaching in the Quran with his everyday commonsense practices.

    The third pillar and one of great importance to Al-Shafii law was Qiyas, or analogy. That which Allah requires His creation to seek through Ijtihad. This is Qiyas. According to al-Imam al-Shafii, Qiyas is a method for reaching a legal-decision on the basis of evidence (a precedent) in which a common reason, or an effective cause, is applicable (Al-Alwani, 2009). Qiyas is essentially the use of analogy to reach a decision. This means Al-Shafii used previous legal precedent to help make decisions for law. This is important because it suggests that each legal case does not exist within a vacuum but indeed helps to build a body of legal knowledge and understanding. With the implementation of qiyas Al-Shafii hoped to create a more balanced and fair judicial system, one which did not personal judgment as much as it did as formal and well structured legal system. Other Islamic systems of law both reject and apply qiyas to greater or lesser degrees, but none use it as tactfully as Al-Shafiis.

    The fourth and potentially the most revolutionary and controversial part of Al-Shafii law is ijma. Ijma is essentially the concept that when the three other pillars of Islamic law fail to provide the answers to a particular legal issue that a consensus among jurors is the best way to reach an agreement. This tenant is what truly sets apart Al-Shafii law from the rest. He insisted that should all other courses of fail to produce results, which it often enough, that the people charged with coming to a legal decision should consult with each other and reach an informed decision together. Ijma constitutes the unanimous agreement of a group of jurists of a particular age on a specific issue and constitutes the fourth and final source of law in Shafiis methodology. If questions arose about a Quranic interpretation or an issue where no there no guidance from either the Quran or sunna, jurists applied their own reasoning (ijtihad) to come to an interpretation (Haddad, 2009). The true genius of the philosophy behind ijma is that it is still quite alive today, both in Islamic religious courts, but even more strikingly found in the secular world. Every country around the world that utilizes a jury of peers that must unanimously come to a decision on a legal case owes its existence to Imam Al-Shafii.

    In conclusion, Imam Al-Shafii showed great wisdom in his creation of a legal system that acknowledged intelligent discourse as well as critical analysis as being integral to the lawmaking process. As discussed here, the controversies caused by his system were many, the first of which was that he did not stress a literal interpretation of the Quran, but rather its underlying universal principles. He further demonstrated his fortitude and progressive thinking by asserting that there were four pillars that were necessary to making an informed and correct judicial decision, while all of the judicial systems at that time only at most suggested that there were two. Another matter that led to great controversy for a short time in Al-Shafiis life was his brush with the law in Yemen- due to the accusations of a rival who falsely had him arrested for political involvement his case was swiftly dismissed due to his reputation as a man of great integrity and courage in sharing his views. With these facts all taken into consideration, in addition to his effectiveness as an authority figure on the four-source theory of law he promoted, led to the emergence of the definitive Sunni (Traditionalist) approach to the law- which places a heavy emphasis on the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad.

In his epistle to the Galatians, St. Paul reminded the Galatians that they will receive the Holy Spirit through faith and not by following the law (Cf. Galatians 3 1   3, The New Jerusalem Bible).

The Jews considered the Gentiles as sinners for never following the Laws of Moses.  However, St. Paul taught the Galatians that the Jews cannot be considered upright by simply following the law. The Apostle to the Gentiles said, as firmly rebuking the wrong belief by the Jews,  Would you say, then, that he who so lavishly sends the Spirit to you, and causes the miracles among you, is doing this through your practice of the Law or because you believed the message you heard Abraham, you remember, put his faith in God, and this was reckoned to him as uprightness... So it is people of faith who receive the same blessing as Abraham, the man of faith  (Galatians 3 5   6, 9, The New Jerusalem Bible).

The Galatians first received the Holy Spirit by believing in the gospel of Jesus Christ. They had not seen him, yet they believed in him and because of that faith, they have received the promise of God as written in the book of the Prophet Joel.

Abraham is considered as the father of faith. This is because he had put all his faith in God and he was blessed with a child named Isaac even at an old age. He was regarded as upright because of his strong faith in God. His faith in God made God to bless him and the entire nation. For this reason, it is through faith, that the gentiles received blessings which were promised to Abraham. St .Paul further taught them that those who depend on the law but do not follow it are accursed people but those who believe in Christ are absolved from this curse. Christ was crucified so that all those who follow the law may be absolved from the curse, once they put their faith in Christ. The law existed to act as a guide towards Jesus Christ but after Christ came and died for all the sinners, all those who had faith in Christ became the children of God.

Baptism makes all the believers, through faith, to become one body of Christ. Once a person receives baptism and has faith in Christ, he becomes communioned with the body of Christ which is the church. Thus, the believers are equal in Christ and are all the heirs of the blessings promised to Abraham.

St. Paul compared the lives of the Galatians to that of an heir. Though the heir may have a lot of property to inherit from his father, he is kept under the control of the father until he reaches a certain age.

Likewise, the Galatians were kept under the confines of the law until a time reached when Jesus was sent by God to redeem the sinners who were subjects of the law. After the Galatians received the Spirit through faith, they were released from the slavery and became God s sons and heirs. The laws that were followed by the Galatians before knowing God were enslaving and not in accordance with the will of God.

The Galatians, after having believed in Christ and received the Holy Spirit, started to turn back to the same laws that they abandoned. In particular, they observed the special seasons and periods as required by the law. Paul was very upset when the Galatians turned back to their old ways and thought that his efforts to preach before the Galatians had been wasted.

Paul remembered how he met the Galatians and preached to them. He had an eye illness but the Galatians received him well as though he was the Christ himself. However, his relationship with the Galatians seemed to worsen. In Galatians 416, he wonders  Then have I turned into your enemy simply by being truthful with you
The people who had no faith in Christ want the Galatians to cut their devotion in St. Paul. Paul was not happy with this. He used figurative language to explain to them the pain that he was going through to bring the Galatians back to the body of Christ. He furhter compared his pain to that of a woman who is giving birth.
Since the Galatians decided to be subjects of the law rather than have faith in Christ and become free people, he wondered whether they were really aware of what the law was saying. The allegory of Hagar, who was Sarah s Egyptian maiden, showed how the children of those born in slavery continue to live in slavery. The son of Hagar, who was called Ishmael, was born by way of nature while Sarah s son, who was called Isaac, was born through a promise made to Abraham by God.

Sarah had lived for many years without a child but Hagar gave birth to a son whose father was Abraham. St. Paul quoted the words in Isaiah 541 which encouraged the barren woman (Sarah) to shout in joy because her sons of the abandoned woman outnumbered those of the married one. Abraham was promised by God that his children will be very many and he will become the father of a great nation. Hagar represented the covenant that was given in Mount Sinai while Sarah represented Jerusalem which is a free state. The Galatians are like Isaac, the son of Sarah who was a free woman. The sons of the slaves, as the scripture says, should be driven away, never to inherit anything alongside the son of Sarah. Likewise, the Galatians are the children of a free woman.

It is indeed that through faith, man receives the holy spirit and becomes a child of God. The teachings of St. Paul are perfect evidence that it is not by the law that man receives the grace of God. It is through faith that man receives salvation and enters the Kingdom of the Lord.

 Christianity since its invention has had eminent controversies revolving around its belief, principles and values. The major focus has been towards reaching a valid position of being able to define what are the basic fundamental Christian world views What is the origin and nature of human beings What is the purpose and meaning of human life How do Christians perceive and view the extends and limits of human knowledge Do Christians have any basis for justifying these assumptions How then do they justify the concept of being moral and immorally upright The divergent opinions held by Christians about Christianity are naturally controversial yet yielding a lot of debates and controversies among different believers. Since time in memorial Christianity has faced enough conflicts and differences among its adherents.

The issue of denominations and doctrines about the best approach to approach the gospel of Jesus Christ has been the major contending issue which has yet yielded a lot of conflicts, separation and divisions among believers. Intensive schism and conflicts among already established denominations have lasted since time in memorial during and after the reformation of the protestant church. Slavery, racial segregation and interracial marriages were among the most contending issues emerging from the contemporary church as early during the 19th century, mid 20th century up to the recent 1950s and 60s.

Today major concerns have risen based on major moral topics such as freedom and rights of Christians and consequently human sexuality. Cases such as abortion and access to it have struck heated debates among the liberal Christians and dominated the headlines of major denominations in the 20th century. Consequently, the idea of female ordination and inclusion in church leadership has also been a critical point of conflicts among the Christians of the day. Various religious indoctrinations hold different opinions about the place of women in the society and more so in the church. In the past few decades women were not allowed to take leadership positions not only in church but also in the society. The home yard was their place of being. However, in regard to the recent transformations spreading around the world, women have sort their positions in the church as leaders and even out side the church. Majority of the Christian denominations have grown to accommodate these changes in trends while others have strongly remained deeply rooted to these old gone principles. Homosexuality has hit the church today with majority of liberal faith groups adopting and accepting lesbians and gay members to minister in church as priests, pastors and rabbis.

The various Christians denominations take very different positions and yet extremely opposite stands in various debates concerning all the above named ethical issues.  Indifferences among the Christian religion are more rooted within the nature of principles and values to be upheld by the Christians. Lack of consolidation of ideas and beliefs has been the major sources of conflicts in Christianity.  Today the issue of premarital sex has also become an issue of concern in church with most adherents supporting it while others extremely rejecting it. The term sin today is church has become relative since each denomination is creating values which never used to be their and adopting the as basic principles

Sociological studies reveal that religion does not only comprise a set of beliefs, practices, or doctrines observed by a group of people. Religion also defines culture sociologically, specifically in determining the role of gender in society. The depiction or representation of female sexuality varies from one religion to another, which consequently determines the kind of culture inherent in each religion. However, all too often, female gender in most religions is depicted negatively, especially in Christianity, Judaism, and Islam. (241) The remainder of this discussion will focus on this issue, focusing on the role of religion in mediating or influencing how women are viewed and how society prescribe female roles, experiences, and identities then and now. The explicit issue in focus is the biased and prejudiced nature of religion, within the sociological perspective, that constitutes the kind of culture that individuals will be practicing, including the changes that occurred in gender representations because of this. 

The Ties between Religion and Culture
    The complementary relations between religion and culture set the stage for the adoption of views and perspectives on the female gender and sexuality. Generally, religion may be considered an element of culture, and culture, on the other hand, may be defined by understanding a religion inherent in social groups. For instance, the identification of a patriarchal society may be based on the structure of religion observed within a social group. Thus, religion also defines culture. Within this context, we should understand that important role of the relationship between religion and culture in impressing gender roles in social groups. Gender roles and identities prescribed by religion becomes a cultural practice of a specific group, and are accepted fully without the adequate consideration of morality or fairness in these religious and cultural observances.

    Human actors cannot, by definition, act other than in terms of the desired ends which their culture has prescribed for them. They cannot act outside cultural limits, because their motives are themselves cultural products (Brittan, 1973 172). The theme or issue that is in focus within this context is the fairness and evenhandedness of gender roles and identities prescribed in religion. This is issue is represented by the concept of collective consciousness. Collective consciousness of a society the system of beliefs in a society that creates a sense of belonging to the community and the moral obligation to live up to the societys demands (242).

Overall, it is important to remember that the relationship between culture and religion eliminates the opportunity for individuals who share the same religion to assess or judge whether the gender roles and identities prescribed by their respective religions are just and fair-minded. Religion, as part of culture, imposes these roles and identities, and the people who belong to these beliefs and convictions are bound to follow it without question.

Female Sexuality and Identities in Various Religions
    Female sexuality and identities are widely depicted in religious texts. Sociologists view these texts not only as representations of religions but also as illustrations of the kind of culture inherent in social groups depending on the interpretation of religious groups. For instance, religious texts from the three of major religions in the world  the Bible, the Koran, and the Torah  through interpretation, are used are instruments in imposing culture that prescribe the roles of women in society. (242)

Sociologists see these histories and texts as neither true nor false, but as symbols, powerful as they may be, of group belief and collective consciousness. Consequently, they are subject to interpretation and symbolic use by religious groups (242). This strengthens the issue of bias and predisposition inherent in religion that has gone unnoticed and unchanged when translated into culture. Therefore, within the sociological perspective, religion may be seen as a representation of the personal views and perspectives of the individuals who interpret religious texts and translate them as the practices and doctrines that religious followers should observe.

    Inequitable treatment of the female gender is also inherent in practices and traditions observed by religions groups. For instance, the Taliban, who are Muslim, adapt religious practices that are demeaning to women. After the September 11, 2001 attacks in the United States, awareness of gender inequality in the Muslim culture was raised for Under the rule of the Taliban regime in Afghanistan  a regime that had taken control of the nation in 1996 following the Afghani war with the Soviet Union  women were forcibly excluded from all public participation, including schools, health care facilities, work, even public baths (252).
Increasing Awareness of Gender Roles and Identities

    The long-standing prejudiced and biased aspect of religion, when viewed from the angle of sociological concepts and theories, are similarly responsible for the various changes that occurred in society in modern times. Over time, individuals have realized how religious perspectives are restricted to the personal interpretation of the people who prescribe and administer religious doctrines to social groups. Thus, the biased and prejudiced views were also the precursors to major social changes on how the female population is perceived in major religious groups or factions.

    At present time, women are given the opportunity to fulfill major roles within their religious groups which were previously prohibited. Sometimes, similar changes occur within existing religious groups, while in some instances, these changes occur due to radical changes by separatist groups that develop new religions and implement egalitarian doctrines and beliefs. For instance, women nowadays are allowed to be part of the clergy. women now constitute 16 percent of all clergy, an increase from the past, but still a small proportion, especially considering that women are 56 percent of all religious workers (247). Thus, positive perspectives that may be gleaned from this discussion is that the long existence of traditional views of female sexuality in different religions have resulted to a  major social change in which women are gradually being accepted as valuable members of religious groups.

    By and large, the discussion focused on the changes that occurred within some religious groups due to traditional and biased perspectives of gender roles and identities. The one-sided aspect of religion has brought about sought after changes and reform within religious groups and cultures. Prejudiced and biased perspectives inherent in some religions have opened up opportunities and possibilities for feminist individuals and groups to be recognized as equal members and society and of religious groups. Although the strong ties between religion and culture have made it difficult to change one-sided perspectives of female sexuality and identity, it is also the same reason why changing the views and perspectives of individuals and religious groups may be successful. Feminist movements and religious groups that practice egalitarianism may be able to change prejudiced and biased perspectives by gradually incorporating just and equal views and perspectives among men and women in religion, and finally in culture