Religion and Theology

Sociological studies reveal that religion does not only comprise a set of beliefs, practices, or doctrines observed by a group of people. Religion also defines culture sociologically, specifically in determining the role of gender in society. The depiction or representation of female sexuality varies from one religion to another, which consequently determines the kind of culture inherent in each religion. However, all too often, female gender in most religions is depicted negatively, especially in Christianity, Judaism, and Islam. (241) The remainder of this discussion will focus on this issue, focusing on the role of religion in mediating or influencing how women are viewed and how society prescribe female roles, experiences, and identities then and now. The explicit issue in focus is the biased and prejudiced nature of religion, within the sociological perspective, that constitutes the kind of culture that individuals will be practicing, including the changes that occurred in gender representations because of this. 

The Ties between Religion and Culture
    The complementary relations between religion and culture set the stage for the adoption of views and perspectives on the female gender and sexuality. Generally, religion may be considered an element of culture, and culture, on the other hand, may be defined by understanding a religion inherent in social groups. For instance, the identification of a patriarchal society may be based on the structure of religion observed within a social group. Thus, religion also defines culture. Within this context, we should understand that important role of the relationship between religion and culture in impressing gender roles in social groups. Gender roles and identities prescribed by religion becomes a cultural practice of a specific group, and are accepted fully without the adequate consideration of morality or fairness in these religious and cultural observances.

    Human actors cannot, by definition, act other than in terms of the desired ends which their culture has prescribed for them. They cannot act outside cultural limits, because their motives are themselves cultural products (Brittan, 1973 172). The theme or issue that is in focus within this context is the fairness and evenhandedness of gender roles and identities prescribed in religion. This is issue is represented by the concept of collective consciousness. Collective consciousness of a society the system of beliefs in a society that creates a sense of belonging to the community and the moral obligation to live up to the societys demands (242).

Overall, it is important to remember that the relationship between culture and religion eliminates the opportunity for individuals who share the same religion to assess or judge whether the gender roles and identities prescribed by their respective religions are just and fair-minded. Religion, as part of culture, imposes these roles and identities, and the people who belong to these beliefs and convictions are bound to follow it without question.

Female Sexuality and Identities in Various Religions
    Female sexuality and identities are widely depicted in religious texts. Sociologists view these texts not only as representations of religions but also as illustrations of the kind of culture inherent in social groups depending on the interpretation of religious groups. For instance, religious texts from the three of major religions in the world  the Bible, the Koran, and the Torah  through interpretation, are used are instruments in imposing culture that prescribe the roles of women in society. (242)

Sociologists see these histories and texts as neither true nor false, but as symbols, powerful as they may be, of group belief and collective consciousness. Consequently, they are subject to interpretation and symbolic use by religious groups (242). This strengthens the issue of bias and predisposition inherent in religion that has gone unnoticed and unchanged when translated into culture. Therefore, within the sociological perspective, religion may be seen as a representation of the personal views and perspectives of the individuals who interpret religious texts and translate them as the practices and doctrines that religious followers should observe.

    Inequitable treatment of the female gender is also inherent in practices and traditions observed by religions groups. For instance, the Taliban, who are Muslim, adapt religious practices that are demeaning to women. After the September 11, 2001 attacks in the United States, awareness of gender inequality in the Muslim culture was raised for Under the rule of the Taliban regime in Afghanistan  a regime that had taken control of the nation in 1996 following the Afghani war with the Soviet Union  women were forcibly excluded from all public participation, including schools, health care facilities, work, even public baths (252).
Increasing Awareness of Gender Roles and Identities

    The long-standing prejudiced and biased aspect of religion, when viewed from the angle of sociological concepts and theories, are similarly responsible for the various changes that occurred in society in modern times. Over time, individuals have realized how religious perspectives are restricted to the personal interpretation of the people who prescribe and administer religious doctrines to social groups. Thus, the biased and prejudiced views were also the precursors to major social changes on how the female population is perceived in major religious groups or factions.

    At present time, women are given the opportunity to fulfill major roles within their religious groups which were previously prohibited. Sometimes, similar changes occur within existing religious groups, while in some instances, these changes occur due to radical changes by separatist groups that develop new religions and implement egalitarian doctrines and beliefs. For instance, women nowadays are allowed to be part of the clergy. women now constitute 16 percent of all clergy, an increase from the past, but still a small proportion, especially considering that women are 56 percent of all religious workers (247). Thus, positive perspectives that may be gleaned from this discussion is that the long existence of traditional views of female sexuality in different religions have resulted to a  major social change in which women are gradually being accepted as valuable members of religious groups.

    By and large, the discussion focused on the changes that occurred within some religious groups due to traditional and biased perspectives of gender roles and identities. The one-sided aspect of religion has brought about sought after changes and reform within religious groups and cultures. Prejudiced and biased perspectives inherent in some religions have opened up opportunities and possibilities for feminist individuals and groups to be recognized as equal members and society and of religious groups. Although the strong ties between religion and culture have made it difficult to change one-sided perspectives of female sexuality and identity, it is also the same reason why changing the views and perspectives of individuals and religious groups may be successful. Feminist movements and religious groups that practice egalitarianism may be able to change prejudiced and biased perspectives by gradually incorporating just and equal views and perspectives among men and women in religion, and finally in culture