Religion and Theology

In the article The Creation of Epic the author has given a detail overview of different accounts the creation of universe narrated by ancient Middle Eastern texts like the Epic of Gilgamesh etc. The authors primary emphasis is on the Sumerian myth Gilgamesh and the Netherworld  the Babylonian myth Enuma Elish.

The Epic of Gilgamesh states that the gods were there before the creation of the universe and the heavens and earth were united and then they were separated. Another poem The Song of Hoe declares that Enlil was the god responsible for the separation of heaven and earth. The god Enki created the rivers Tigris and Euphrates, watercourses, fish and birds, and organized the world. On the other hand Enlils copulation with the hills created the seasons, fertility, abundance and floods. Namma, the primeval mother, created the first humans by placing clay in her womb.

In the Babylonian poem Enuma Elish the creation of the world is attributed to Marduk the Lord of the gods, who after vanquishing his rival goddess Tiamat, sliced her into two pieces and made the heavens with one and the earth with the other. Later he created mankind with the blood of Qingu, his rivals spouse.

All these stories have some similarities with the story of creation told in the Book of Genesis. For example Genesis speaks about the separation of heavens and earth, the creation of light, the creation of things with the word of God, the creation of humans with clay, and the initial chaos of the universe, which is very similar to the noisy and boisterous behavior of the gods in the Babylonian tradition. Thus when seeing these same patterns in these stories one can easily conclude that all the Middle Eastern myths and stories regarding the creation of universe have many things in common.

Synopsis of The Theology of Memphis
In Memphis Theology, which was recorded by the 8th century BC Nubian king Shabaka, and is known as Shabakas text is based on Ptah. Ptah is the most powerful of all the gods and the creator of the universe. He became the primordial fire and gave substance to it. He was also the creator of all the other gods, their souls (kas) and everything else. Everything was created by the generative power of Ptah through his thought and speech, in other words, his tongue and his heart.

According to the author the primary motive behind the development of this theology was to justify the capital and central status of the new capital city of Memphis and disregard the status of Heliopolis. But all the gods of the Heliopolis theology were not abandoned and Ptah has the qualities of eight gods like Enned, Ogdoad, Atum, Nun and Naunet.

Moreover the Memphite theology is very similar to the Theban and Hindu tradtion of triad of gods, who are either the creator, the destroyer or the preserver of the universe.

The Memphite theology and the story of creation in this myth have many similarities with the story of creation as explained in the book of Genesis. First of all as explained by the author of article, Ptah the Memphite supreme god is the most Supreme Being and creator of all, very much like the god of the Israelites. He also seems to create things with his thought and speech like God in the Book of Genesis created everything with his word and command. The similarity continues like God in Genesis created Adam with clay, and in the same manner Ptah created the first humans with clay. Despite these similarities the story of the book of Genesis is much different from this one as there is no mention of a primordial fire in Genesis, neither there is any mentioning of the creation and separation of heavens and earth in the Memphite theology.

Synopsys of The Laws of Ur-Nammu
Ur-Nammu was the founder of the third dynasty of Ur, which ruled Sumer and Akkad during 21st century BC. Ur-Nammu was the first king in the ancient Middle East to develop a collection of laws, which solve nearly all the disputes between the people of that society. The primary objective of these laws was to prevent abuse and oppression of the strong to the weak and establish a reliable justice system.

The code of Ur-Nammu consisted of 34 laws or codes, which deal with all the criminal, social and monetary issues of the society. The law insures the protection of the poor, widow and orphan against by wealthy and the weak. Each law starts with a conditional sentence and then with legal result of that condition. Sumerians valued both daughters and sons, as dowries were required from both the bride and the groom. Laws regarding marriage, betrothal, divorce and slavery gives us great insight regarding the status of women in the Sumerian society. Consent of brides father and a written contract was necessary for a marriage. Polygyny was avoided as Sumerian men were required to dissolve their previous marriage before marrying another woman. Divorce was initiated by the husband, but he was also required to compensate her. Slave marriages were also legal. Rape of a betrothed virgin was punishable by death. On the contrary rape of a virgin slave was only fined.

Men and women falsely accused of crime were judged by the river ordeal, in which they were thrown in the river. If they survived they were considered innocent, if not then they were righteously accused. If the accusation was proven wrong, then the accuser will pay fine to the accused.  Offenses like, abducting, dismemberment, injuring someone were penalized by monetary punishments. Murder was punishable by death penalty, but private vengeance was not allowed. Another death penalty was when a married woman intentionally seduces another man. The man was viewed as a victim. False testimony before the court was fined. Challenging the authority of the owner by the slaves was considered a serious crime. Running away was also a serious crime and the person who brings the runaway slaves back was heavily rewarded.

The overall image of the law of Ur-Nammu is that compensatory penalties were preferred in most cases. Capital punishments were given in only four cases as mention above.

Synopsys of The Laws of Eshnunna
Eshnunna, a small Amorite kingdom, north of Sumer, which became independent after the fall of third dynasty of Ur, prevailed during the first quarter of the second millennium BC. It was later conquered and annexed by Hammurabi. The laws of Eshnunna were written during the early period of the kingdom. They were not well ordered as were the laws of Ur-Nannu. Most of the preserved laws were related to matrimonial issues.

The law required consent from the brides father as well as mother. A written marriage contract was also required. Living together without marriage does not give the woman any legal protection. If the brides father marries her to someone else, then he is required to return twice the value the groom has given as gifts to him.

Men were given lands in exchange of military service, while women were not. If a long lost soldier returns home to find his wife has married someone else, she has to return back to him at once. Man marrying another woman after his first wife has borne his children was forced to leave all his possessions and property for his first wife and go in exile. This means that polygamy was considered unlawful, particularly after the woman has borne children.

Slaves were legal property of their owners. They were not legal persons and have no legal rights. Rape of a betrothed virgin was punishable by death. On the contrary rape of a virgin slave was only fined. Crimes causing injury and dismemberment were usually fined. Murder of any free man, woman or child was punishable by death. Murder of a slave was punished by compensatory fines. Adultery committed by a married woman was punishable by death and the husband was allowed to execute her privately. Trespassing someones property in day was fined, but if done in night was punishable by death. Negligent failure to prevent an injury was also a crime.

The overview of the laws of Ashnunnu states that this code was more severe than its Sumerian predecessor, as capital punishments were increased to 5 to 6 cases. All other penalties were compensatory in nature.

Synopsys of the Code of Hammurabi
Hammurabi was the strongest king of the Old Babylonian Empire, which lasted for almost a couple of centuries during the first half of the 2nd millennium BC. The laws of Hammurabi are the most extensive collection of laws ever compiled in the ancient Near East. It is a nearly complete set of 282 laws. The primary objective of the law was to make justice prevail in the land and to prevent the strong from oppressing the weak, as mentioned by Hammurabi himself in the prologue of the code.

There were four legal requirements for the marriage i.e. gifts from the groom, dowry from the father of the bride, a written contract of the marriage, and a feast. If the father refuses to marry his daughter with the groom after accepting has gifts, he has to return him twice the value of the gifts. Marrying another woman was allowed in only three conditions. The second wife cannot seek equal status to the first wife. If a widow wants to remarry, she and her second husband are required to give written guarantee that they will take care of her children from her first husband. The widow has the right to live in the house of her husband her entire life, though she was not entitled to sell it. Womens children will divide her dowry after her death. Divorce was legal and initiated by the husband. The husband is required to give her the full value of his marriage gifts. Divorcing a priestess was more expensive than an ordinary woman. If a woman accuses her husband publicly and later her accusations were found baseless then the woman is put to death.

Men were given possession of land in exchange of military services. He cannot assign his property to his wife, daughter or creditor. Ordinary women were excluded from feudal properties, but the priestesses were allowed to possess and use it. If a debtor is unable to pay his debts, the creditor can sell the labor of his son, daughter or wife for three years. Slaves were personal property of their owners. Marriages between slaves and free persons were permitted.

The law tried to protect women against crime when they are vulnerable and weak. Rape and incest resulted in death penalty. If a women priest enters a tavern she was burnt to death. If a can kills a citizens daughter, his daughter, not the murderer himself, was killed. Murder of a commoners daughter was not considered homicide. In most cases of assault and battery, penalties based on talion were imposed. This means an eye for an eye, hand for a hand. False accusation of a capital crime was a capital offense resulting in death penalty. A man falsely accusing a woman of adultery would be flogged in front of the judges. The penalty of robbery was death.

The overview of the code of Hammurabi gives us the idea that this law is more severe and harsher than the previous two laws, as it uses death penalty more frequently and even uses burning and drowning as a way of punishment.