Prayer in Judaism and Islam
This research focuses on daily prayer in these two religions. In both, these fulfill religious duties or obligations, as well as satisfying believers own spiritual needs. Requirements for men and women differ in both. In many respects, Islam appears to have been more influenced by Jewish than by Christian practices, as Abraham Geiger argued (Heschel, 1998, p. 61). More or less the same traditions are followed by all Jews and Muslims, so variation from this tradition is rare.
Jewish Prayer
The tradition of praying three times a day dates from the Babylonian exile (586-538BCE), after the first Jerusalem Temple had been destroyed. Then, the system of sacrifices and offerings in the Temple was, at least for the time being, discontinued. This built on an older tradition of praying at the start and end of every day, derived from the Shema at Deuteronomy 6 4-9. The Shema was recited in the morning and at night. During the Exile, the practice of praying three times a day began, corresponding to the times when sacrifices were offered in the Temple. Later, the Talmud linked the three prayers not only with the Temple but with the Patriarchs, saying that Abraham instituted the Morning Prayer, his son, Isaac the Afternoon Prayer and his son, Jacob the Evening Prayer (Goldman, 200, p. 214). The Rabbis came to associate these daily prayers with the obligation to serve God (see Exodus 23 25), declaring that all Jewish men (over the age of 13) must observe them, as one of the 613 mitzvot or commandments (Eisenberg, 2005, p. 8). Before prayer, both hands are ritually washed. Worship in Judaim always follows set patterns and forms, set out in books known as siddur. Mnay Jews memorize the prayers. No leader is neededThe sages emphasize that prayer must be offered sincerely and with devotional intent, not mechanically or to impress others with your piety. Men wear the tefillin, the leather boxes containing the Shema and other Torah verses on their foreheads and left arms during morning service.
Maimonides encouraged people to spend time before and after formal prayer and to repeat the prayer if genuine kavannah (direction of the heart) was lacking (Eisenberg, p. 8). Blessings are recited before bathing, putting on the Tefillin and the Tallit (prayer shawl). Over time, the content of the three daily prayers became more or less set, although there is some variation across different sub-traditions, such as Orthodox and Reform. Torah portions are read on Sabbath and on Monday and Thursday mornings, so that the whole text is read over the year. Anyone considered competent can lead the prayers. The Schema is always recited, representing belief in One God and what can be understood as a declaration of Jewish identity. Shemoneh Esrei, the 18 Blessings composed in the fifth century BCE, selected psalms and hymns, form the core elements. There is no music in Orthodox services a cantor leads the chanting. Where there are ten men (or ten Jews for Reform), prayer must be offered as a congregation. The Sabbath service has additional elements, especially surrounding the reading of the Torah, which is first carried around the congregation and kissed. The Sabbath (sunset Friday to sunset Saturday) is a day of rest. While the Torah is always read in Hebrew, prayers can be said in other languages. At various set points in the service, worshippers bow.
Orthodox Jews, however, use Hebrew. Women do not have to observe the three prayers or attend Synagogue. If they do attend Synagogue, they sit apart from and separated from men. They play no role in the service among the Orthodox. Orthodox women should pray at least once a day, following any form they choose. However, they light the Sabbath candle in the home, reciting the blessing.
Muslim Prayer
Like Jewish prayer, Muslim prayer takes place at set times. Traditions surrounding Jewish prayer developed over many centuries, involving many contributors. All traditions related to Muslim prayer are from Muhammad, who was in turn instructed by the Angel Gabriel (Rippin, 1990, p. 90). Muslims regard God as the ultimate source of all aspects of their prayer tradition. Prayer is a fard (obligatiory duty), one of the five pillars of Islam. The set times are daybreak, noon, mid-afternoon, sunset and evening. Jewish men begin obligatory prayer at age 13 but there is no specific age for Muslims, who arte expected to begin as soon as they are capable. Muslims point to Quranic verses mentioning these prayer times. Some non-Muslim scholars argue that only three prayer times can be identified (Leaman, 2006, p.560). Some think that traditions surrounding prayer developed over a lengthier time, although still far shorter than applies to Jewish tradition. Rippin suggests that five times may have been a conscious effort to produce a self-definition which was mid-way between and yet clearly distinct from Judaism and Christianity referencing the three daily Jewish and the six-prayer times of Syrian Christian monastic ritual (91). Before prayer, it is obligatory to perform ablution. This is more elaborate than Jewish ablution, involving washing face, arms, hands, feet, ears, nose and rinsing the mouth. Before commencing, a prayer is recited, representing right intent (niyyah). The same conviction underlies Muslim and Jewish ritual that it is only valid if performed with devotional intent.
Prayer is always in Arabic.
There is no equivalent of tefallin or prayer shawl for Muslims, who technically do not require any objects to perform prayer. Prayer can be offered anywhere (as can Jewish prayer) but the qiblah (direction of Mecca) has to be located and faced. Often, a prayer mat will be used. Prayer is preceded by the recitation of the Call, which has no equivalent in Judaism. There is no quorum that requires congregational prayer, although a minimum of three (men) is needed for this to occur (Glass 400). Congregational prayer for men (not for women), though, is obligatory on Friday. Then, a portion of the Quran is read and explained (khutbah). There is no equivalent of processing the Torah, or kissing it. The prayer leader, though, can choose any portion (there is no set text, unlike in Judaism, for each week) and the day is considered normal, not one of rest. Women may attend but sit apart, as do women in Orthodox Jewish synagogues. Women and men otherwise have identical obligations. Both are excepted when ill or traveling but should make up later.
Women who miss due to menstruation are excused from making up. Certain words are always spoken, as they are in Jewish prayer, namely the Fatiha (Quran chapter one) and a form of the Shahadah, which is similar to the Shema, a declaration of faith in One God. Each prayer time has a set number of cycles, after which make up prayer can be added. The cycle moves through standing, bowing, to complete prostration. This movement is more elaborate than the bowing involved in Jewish prayer. Both Jewish and Muslim prayer has spoken and silent components. Quranic verses can be included, usually shorter chapters as freely chosen by the leader (as long as they progress forward, for example 96, 98, 100 not backwards numerically). There is no siddur-type book involved, no form of singing.
Contemporary Practice, Jewish-Muslim Interaction and Interviews
Jews and Muslims view daily prayers as honoring and respecting tradition but also as religious obligation. In both religions, rules regarding prayer are integral to legal traditions, covered by Halakah and Shariah respectively. Subsequently, they can not be changed. Faithfulness to tradition is valued as much by contemporary Jews and Muslims as it was by their ancestors. Nonetheless, in Judaism, some adaptation took place when the Reform movement began in the early nineteenth century. In Reform synagogues, the length of services is shortened, vernacular languages are used as well as Hebrew and some Torah portions omit lists and genealogies. Perhaps the major difference is that women in Reform (and Conservative in the US) sit with men and wear the prayer shawl. In these Jewish movements, women serve as Rabbis. Women are counted as part of the quorum (Fisher, p 170). They may read the Torah portion (Fisher, p. 171).
Contemporary Orthodoxy permits women to wear Tefillin although this is not encouraged. Some groups of Orthodox women gather to conduct their own Torah-services, observing all relevant traditions but these services have encountered great opposition (Denison, 1998, p. 258). Reform is strong outside the state of Israel, where the Rabbinate does not recognize the authority of non-Orthodox Rabbis (Fisher, p. 168).
Among Muslims, prayers continue to be offered exclusively in Arabic, although some legal schools allow new converts to use another language until they are able to recite the Arabic. Minimal differences exist between different schools, except for Ismailis who have three prayers and a different format. The role of women is a controversial topic. Muslim prayer involved lining up shoulder to shoulder and few if any argue that women and men should mix. Women may form a prayer line at the rear but some Muslims insist on complete separation. Muslim women who attend mosque are expected to pray, following the lead of the Imam, exactly as men do. An Imam is simply a prayer leader who knows the ritual. Some have undergone special training and are paid by the community. However, any Muslim can act as a prayer leader (as can any adult Jew). A Muslim woman can lead prayer for other women. Whether a woman can lead mixed prayer or mens prayer is much more controversial. Many Muslims say that this is against Islamic Law. A few disagree. The five daily prayers follow a relatively simple format. They are also quite short. There is no equivalent of a Reform movement among Muslims, although it has been outside majority-Muslim countries that a few women have led mixed prayer and preached the Friday khutbah.
Since the creation of the modern nation state of Israel, Jewish-Muslim relations have been dominated by issues related to the fate of the Palestinian people. This tends to sour interaction and encounter between the two traditions. Nonetheless, there is no barrier as such preventing Muslims from visiting a Synagogue or Jews from visiting a mosque. There are interfaith circles and associations where Jews and Muslims engage in dialogue and visit each others places of worship. When a non-Jew attends a Synagogue, there is no reason why they cannot participate in the prayers. Non-Jews known as god-fearers attached prayed in Synagogues in Roman times. Much depends on ability to follow the Hebrew. In Reform synagogues, transliteration of the Hebrew is often available and more vernacular is used, which some Jews also utilize. If a Jew visits a Mosque, participating in prayer is more problematic. Technically, only Muslims should join the prayer line, after performing ablution. However, someone who knows Arabic or who has memorized the prayers could easily join and those present would assume they were Muslim. Someone less familiar with the words might be taken as a new Muslim. It is unlikely that a Jew would wish to do so. They are more likely to observe, offering their own, silent prayers as they do so. Outside Muslim-majority countries, Mosques are more used to non-Muslims attending, either as possibly converts or to broaden their understanding of Islam.
Visiting a local reform Synagogue and a local Mosque gave opportunity to speak with a Rabbi and an Imam. The Rabbi was a woman. The Imam was a trained scholar employed by the Mosque. The Synagogue was called a Temple, which is not uncommon among Reform but Orthodox do not use this term. The service included a Bar-mitzvah a 13 year old boy became a full member of the community. Many guests were present, mainly Jewish. However, the Rabbi explained the service as it proceeded, always indicating relevant page numbers. She explained later that she does this when she knows that guests are present. She said that many of the Jews attending for the bar-mitzvah were unfamiliar with the service, too. She stressed that anyone was welcome to attend the synagogue. She pointed out that it was easier for strangers to follow, because more English was used and the Hebrew was transliterated in the siddur. However, while she sang the songs and recited the prayers with great enthusiasm, few others actually joined in, which was a surprise.
Before the prayers began, the Imam explained in English what he was going to preach in Arabic. The Imam later explained that the Khutbah should be Arabic. If no one present could deliver an Arabic address, another language could be used. Observing the synchronized movement of prayer was impressive. It was more coordinated than the Synagogue service, simple yet uplifting. On the other hand, the Synagogue service was easier to follow, since English was used. The two experiences were very different, yet many similarities exist between Jewish and Muslim prayer, set-times, a set form, body movements, stress on inner intent and devotion.
The synagogue service, in some respects, seemed closer to Christian worship use of a service book the procession of the Torah (the Gospel is processed in some Christian services). However, the requirement to pray at set times has only applied to monks and nuns. Nor is prayer understood as an obligation in quite the same way. Ablution before prayer, common to Jews and Muslims, is not a Christian practice, nor for many Christians does worship in todays world follow exactly the same form as it did a thousand years ago. Some Christians, though, allow women worship leaders, some do not.
Conclusion
This research challenged preconceived ideas about Jewish and Muslim prayer as mechanical. Prayer, said Muhammad, without the Presence of the Lord in the heart is not prayer at all (Fisher, p. 239). The idea of set prayers at set times as obligatory, some differences between male and female practice, crosses the two traditions. The idea that historical links and common origins lie behind these two traditions appears justified by the many similarities that exist. The similarities appear to outweigh differences, suggesting a more intimate relationship than is often imagined, given contemporary hostility between some Jews and Muslims.
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