In Hindu Classical texts, women seem to be depicted as hierarchically inferior to men. According to Oxtoby and Segal, Manava Dharmasastra or Laws of Manu, which was probably written around the first century when the caste system is firmly in place, indicates that women have slipped to an inferior position from the relatively high status they enjoyed in the period of the Vedas (279). Manu Smrti also justifies the subjugation of women to men (Oxtoby and Segal 71). An extract from his writing describes the virtues of a faithful wife. Among others, faithful wife is described as one who worships his husband as a god even if the husband is destitute of virtue, seeking pleasure elsewhere or devoid of good qualities (Oxtoby and Segal 71) desires to dwell with her husband after death and never does anything that might displease him whether he be dead or alive (Oxtoby and Segal 71). In Hindu tradition, menstruation is also regarded as physically polluting (Oxtoby and Segal 312). This entails the removal of menstruating women in everyday life and prohibits them from activities like cooking, attending religious rituals or going to a place of worship.
Despite being described as inferior beings in classical Hindu texts, there are still a lot of positive images of women in the form of various goddesses like the two consorts of Vishnu Lakshmi and Parvati. Lakshmi is the incarnation of female virtue, the model wife, the bringer of prosperity and the incarnation of compassion and Parvati is also depicted as the model wife and follower and is often referred to as the model mother.
Hindu tradition also describes powerful women goddesses. One example would be Durga who is known as the consort and spiritual power of the god Siva. Seated on her lion, she defeated the demons who were threatening to overrun the world.
It would be wrong to think that the images of the Hindu female deities reflect the real roles of women in society. This is not the case but the various characters of goddesses seem to recognize the complex roles that women may adjust to in society.
Hinduism also recognizes the importance of a man and womans union. Hinduism describes physical love as an essential part of life. Kama or sensual love, a sensual enjoyment of all kinds is considered a legitimate goal (Fisher and Bailey 299). Spouses were expected to be partners in kama as well as dharma.
Another depiction of sexual equality between man and woman is seen in the dharmasastra, a man born is born with debts to the sages, the gods, and the ancestors that he cannot repay without marrying (Oxtoby and Segal 306). He repays his debt to the gods by performing the correct domestic and social rituals with and only with his wife only and his debt to the ancestors is repaid by having children. A wife is accordingly, a mans partner in fulfilling dharma and he cannot fully complete his religious obligations without her. In the wedding ceremony, the couple take seven steps around a sacred fire while chanting mantras taken from sections of the Upanishads and Vedas. The officiating priest speaks the mantras, which the bride and bridegroom repeat after him (Oxtoby and Segal 306). In these mantras, the wife is considered as the husbands in dharma and his companion and friend in love not merely a mans possession, chattel or obedient servant.
Hindu scriptures and rituals seem to offer contradictory views of women. According to Oxtoby and Segal (311), an understanding of auspiciousness may help to clarify some of these contradictions. Auspiciousness refers to prosperity in life. Because of a married womans ability to bear children are auspicious because they promote the three fundamental human goals recognized by classical scriptures dharma (duty), artha (prosperity), and kama (sensual pleasure). In dharmasatras and in practice even today, a sumangali or a woman whose husband is alive is auspicious because she can be a full partner in dharma, artha, and kama, can bear children, and can help her husband acquire both wealth and religious merit (311). Traditionally, a woman is portrayed as a faithful wife both in her husbands life and after his death and is expected to worship and serve his husband as a god. But a wifes faithfulness and fidelity gives her limitless powers. The Puranas and oral tradition both include many stories depicting a faithful wifes power to save lives and even perform miracles.
Unlike Hinduism, Buddhism gave ambiguous information on womens role in society though there were still more rules for women than men. Buddhism did not ever define women as the property of men but earlier texts gives vague descriptions of womens roles in society. Shakyamuni is said to have cautioned the bhikshus against allowing themselves to be distracted by women and to have resisted the formation of an order for women, the bhikshuni sangha, and predicted that its existence would shorten the life of his teachings (Oxtoby and Segal 426-427). But Shakyamuni still agreed to the establishment of the order for women and even encouraged close relatives including his stepmother to join. This indicates that both men and women in Buddhism are capable of becoming Arhats and achieving nirvana regardless of their gender.
But apparently, a distinct difference can be observed between monks and nuns with regard to their status. The male sangha (congregation of Buddhist monks or nuns) officially outranked its female counterpart, and bhikshunis (ordained nuns) were not allowed to teach bhiksus (ordained monks). Over time, the bhikshuni sangha was allowed to die out in many Bhuddist countries (Oxtoby and Segal 427). Recently an effort was seen to revive the practice of bhikshuni ordination in Theravada countries. Theravada laywomen practise at home and in temples. They join orders, live a pious life, serve others, and in some cases take vows of poverty and service even though they are not officially ordained. Some of these women seem to be not interested in being ordained because they feel that they have more freedom to serve others if they are not bound by vinaya rules, a section of the Pali canon containing the rules of practice and conduct for monks (Oxtoby and Segal 428).
Buddhism has very little, if not none, teachings that identifies with a particular gender. Buddhas teachings revolve around a universal law, which if followed, allows men and women alike to achieve nirvana or the state of bliss. To become a Buddhist is to adopt the Three Refuges I take refuge in the Buddha, the dharma, and the sangha. Buddha taught the four Noble Truths (1) Life inevitably involves suffering (2) Suffering originates in desires for transient things (3) Suffering can be ceased by the eradication of desires (4) The path to liberation from desires is the Eightfold Path (Fisher and Bailey 113). Notice that these core teachings of Buddhism does not hint of any reference to a particular gender instead it mainly points out that it is by living by the dharma which the Buddha taught that one achieves liberation through the continual painful round of births and deaths that one achieves the blissful state known as nirvana.
Buddhism has three main traditions or vehicles the Theravada (oldest) which spread to Southeast Asia, the Mahayana which became the principal school in East Asia and the third is Vajyarana which developed out of Mahayana and became closely associated with the Himalayan regions (Oxtoby and Segal 377). All schools stress non-violence and compassion for all living beings but none emphasize any particular rule pertaining to gender.
Emerging from a time when strict caste systems are observed and spiritual achievement is mostly given for males, Buddhism has represented liberty and a refreshing view of religion during its time. Its universal message is designed for the good of humanity as a whole without regard to caste, race or sex.
Appreciatively, Buddhism propelled a change of attitude towards women which gave them the possibility of ultimate spiritual liberation. The Dhamma or Dharma which the Buddhists consider the supreme guide teaches the way to the Path, does not have any gender and thereby indicating that the Buddhas Path could be practiced by anyone, male or female. Supreme enlightenment, the highest form of achievement for Buddhism, is obtainable by both male and female.
Of all the religious disciplines in the world, perhaps Buddhism has regarded a woman at a much higher elevation in social position. Hinduism has had little change even in modern times. Christianity has been considered a masculine religion because its doctrine relates to a male God (Father) and his son Jesus Christ.
Until today, the interesting subject of gender roles, particularly that of womens has sparked continued debate which resulted to changes in roles played by women in social and economic perspective. The churches are not exempt from these debates and changes are being done as well. May it be taken in the social, economic, political or religious point of views, gender roles for women is radically changing the way we live our lives today.
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