Religion and Theology

Shamans are usually considered in their communities as spiritual leaders for the spiritual leadership and responsibilities that they posses, and medicine men owing to their level of intellect on spiritual matters. A shaman is an individual who has massive influence to the people of a certain tribe in which he interacts with. A shaman is also considered as a person who is capable of communicating with the spiritual world through a series of rituals and beliefs. This means that they are considered as messengers or intermediaries between the spirit world and the living. A shaman can also travel into different dimensions such as the spiritual world, to help heal the individuals with ailments, by creating a balance within the soul. They work on the principle that healing of the spirit leads to the healing of the body (Vitebsky, Shamanism, 2001).

Communities that have shamans believe that shamans are not self chosen or even chosen by mere man, but normally heed to a higher power. It is believed that shamans are chosen on the basis that one has survived a serious attack of illness that could not be cured by western medicine or even local doctors. Also a person with a near death experience could be considered as shaman material, for example in the case of an individual who survives a lightening strike. Thus one of the roles of a shaman is that of a healer, by entering into the spiritual dimension and gaining knowledge and power necessary for the healing process (Vitebsky, 2001). This knowledge is acquired in the spirit world from other spirits that guide the shaman in his journeys within the spirit world. The spirits only enter the shaman when he is an entranced state and energizes him  her. However it is important to note that not all shamans have the ability to heal and it is a preserve of a few shamans. Furthermore, an individual does not fully recover only by the shamans rituals, but also by standard medical procedures once the soul is restored. Another role of the shaman is that of a mediator between the spirit world and the living world. This includes spirits of the dead as well as other spirits. This is where information is passed on to the dead and vice versa to solve unresolved issues that are bringing unrest to the community or a family. This sometimes involves the use of worldly possessions such as money, which is burnt so as the spiritual world can be able to use it (Vitebsky, Shamanism, 2001).

Another role of the shaman is to enter a state of ecstasy, by the use of a trance. This enables the shaman to travel into the heavens or into the underworld and even into parallel universe and communicate with other healers who deal spiritually. This state of ecstasy enables the shaman to gather wisdom from the spiritual world to enable him her perform his rituals and even cleanse his her spirit. With the knowledge gathered from the spiritual world, the shaman can also offer counsel to the community (Vitebsky, Shamanism, 2001).

In the modern and western worlds, there are certain professions that practice work that can be undertaken by a shaman. The role of a doctor is to heal and cure those ailing from physical ailments. This can also be done by shamans with the difference being that shamans will use the spiritual aspect of healing by creating balance within the soul, by traveling to realms not known by the normal human being. A doctor on the other hand will use modern science, such as drugs and therapy, which are explainable by science. Another profession that involves work that can be undertaken by the shaman is that of a psychology. Psychologists tend to people who are disturbed, depressed and in need of mental help. A psychologist will always help a patient by giving sound advice, and in some cases medication, though in a sense the advice from a psychologist is usually self induced by the patient himself. In the case of a shaman, if an individual is having mental problems, the shaman will travel into the spiritual dimension, and try and create balance within the soul, while consulting with the spirits and other spiritual healers from the spiritual world. Finally, the role that a priest plays in the Christian world can also be undertaken by a shaman. A priest will assist those having spiritual problems and in need of spiritual guidance. The difference between a priest and a shaman is that, a priest will not enter into a trance to try to communicate with the spiritual world in search of wisdom, but will rather help the individual by use of prayer and faith. A shaman will try to communicate with the spirit world by entering into a trance and traveling to the spiritual dimension and try to guide the individual based on hisher experience (Vitebsky, 2001).

The Roman Catholic Church has been rated as the largest single Christian denomination in the world. There is no part of the world that the presence of the Roman Catholic Church is not felt. Regardless of this fact, the term roman is still utilized because of the churchs historical attachment to the city of Rome as well as the significance of pope, who is the Bishop of Rome. According to the statistics of 1980, the Roman Catholic Church had a global membership of about seven hundred and eighty three million, this being about eighteen percent of the entire global population. However this number is based on infant baptism and not on active participation in churchs activities (Fahey, 2010). Roman Catholicism is a unique Christian denomination and shares and differs in different ways with Judaism.

History of Catholic Church
When the Germanic peoples invaded the Roman Empire territories in the early middle ages, what followed was a period of total chaos. The empire was taken over by barbarian kingdoms causing the ancient culture to disappear though the church preserved a part of it. The pope of that time made Charlemagne the emperor so as to resurrect the Western Roman Empire. During the middle ages, there was reformation in the Catholic Church at the same time when the crusades were taking place. This is the time when great cathedrals were built with the pope growing to be a very powerful and prestigious figure, with the most notable one being Pope Innocence III (1198-1216) (All about Religion, 2010). The papacy decline took place in the late Middle Ages with the popes seat, moving to Avignon (French border) from Rome. This was the time of what is commonly referred to as Great Western Schism (1378-1423), with as many as three persons claiming to be popes. However, the council met and the restoration of one pope took place. It is after this time that the popes began constructing beautiful palaces and declared war against Italian potentates. Between 1453 and 1600, the church underwent Counter Reformation after America was conquered and after the protestant reformation. It is until 1870 that the First Vatican Council was held and where the pope was declared infallible. Christianity became universal as more parts of the world received missionaries. The Roman Catholic Church experienced further reforms in 1962 when the second Vatican council met (Norman, 2007).

Catholic Beliefs
Roman Catholics have beliefs, some of which differ from those of the other protestant denominations. The first of this belief is that the churchs authority lies within the churchs hierarchy and not within a believer (Rudd, 2010). Secondly the Roman Catholic Church believes that truth is in the bible as inferred by the church but also as found in the traditions of the church. Another notable aspect of the Catholic Church dissimilar with other denominations is that the bible they use has more books than that of a protestant bible. They have additional books that they refer to as apocrypha (Fairchild, 2010).
   
The other notable feature of the church is that its clergy only consists of the unmarried male. Moreover, Roman Catholics believe that forgiveness can be done through the help of a church priest when confessing (Hanna, 1911). In addition to believe in the presence of hell, the Roman Catholics also include purgatory and limbo in its definition. There is a belief in the Roman Catholic Church that Mary the mother of Jesus was without the original sin during her birth. In addition, they believe that she is below Jesus but above other Christians and can act as their mediators. Catholics pray to God directly but also to Mary and other saints who act as their intercessors. Regarding religious doctrines, the Catholics hold it that the pope is infallible. Regarding salvation, the Roman Catholics believe that it by works, sacraments and faith while the Protestants believe that salvation is only by faith (Fairchild, 2010).

Interview
Under the instructions given by our professor to visit a place of worship of a religion different from ours, I visited St. Elizabeth of Hungary Raeford North Carolina located at 124 Palmer street Raeford, NC 28376. The parish seems extremely tight knit and embraces their religion. They strive to embrace their faith through living according to the Gospel. Everyone was friendly. The church mission statement was written clearly We, the parishioners of St. Elizabeth of Hungary Catholic Church, embrace our baptismal responsibility to enrich our personal, family and communal faith by living according to the challenge of the Gospel and by spreading the Good News. As followers of Jesus, we reach out to the special needs of all. I had booked an appointment with the priest in charge and was able to interview him in his office.

First, he pointed out that religion has shaped his life so much as it has helped him to know what is right and wrong. It has been a moral compass for him and his family. Regarding the hardest challenges that are found when practicing Catholicism, the priest stated that it is remembering what is religiously immoral according to his religion. He added that Catholicism has so many of such that he sometimes lives in fear of doing something he is not supposed to. He however added that such challenges are the reason why there is Penance. He described Penance as a sacrament of the law that was instituted by Jesus, whereby the forgiveness of sins which are committed after baptism is offered via the absolution of the priest to those who confess and repent.

I asked him what the important holidays and traditions in Catholicism are and he named Advent, Christmas, Epiphany, Ash Wednesday, Lent, Good Friday, Easter, and Palm Sunday. He added that the church worship is expressed through rites such as baptism, confirmation, ordinations, weddings, burial rites, penitential rites, singing and burial rites. When I asked him why the Roman Catholics make a sign of the cross, he answered that it is seen a statement of belief the belief in the Trinity the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. It is a vow to defend this belief.

I also wanted to know how the Roman Catholic Church is organized.  He answered that locally, it is the Parish usually headed by a Priest. The second tier is called the Diocese headed by a Bishop. The third level is a Province headed by an Archbishop. Conference which is a collection of all the Bishops from a particular country is next. Lastly is The Roman Curia. This is where the Catholic Church, as a universal whole, is departmentalized for governance and guidance. Each department is seen over by a Cardinal. However, he clarified that the hierarchy of the church is simple. At the top is the pope who is the world head at St. John Lateran Basilica, the only catholic church that has three authority levels world head, diocese head and local parish. The next level of authority is the bishops who head dioceses and preach in a cathedral (local church). The next in the authority is the priest who heads a parish and finally the Catholics.

In response to whether the Catholics worships Mary or not, he stated that they do not worship her but they respect and acknowledge her because she is the mother of Jesus. He also defended his religion stating that his religion does not worship idols (statues) but that the statues found in churches and shrines are just visual reminders of the heroes and saints in the faith. He added that Catholics do not pray at the foot of any statue. I wanted to know why Roman Catholics confess their sins to a priest and the response was there are many opportunities to not adhere to the Catholic religious belief doctrines. Therefore, the priest is a representative of God and Gods mercy and he is able to forgive them and deal them penance for those sins.

On the question of why the Roman Catholics refer to the priests as Fathers, he added that it is a term of respect dating back to the beginning of Catholicism and the founding fathers of the religion. Lastly, I asked him what purgatory is and he explained that it is period of purification of our souls after death. According to him, this is because of the sins we have on our soul upon death or throughout life.  Comparison between Roman Catholicism and Judaism

There is a close relationship between Judaism and Christianity and in this case Roman Catholicism, both theologically and historically. Jesus Christ of whom Christianity as a religion is based, his twelve disciples as well as the majority of the authors of the New Testament were all professing Jews. In fact the early Christians used to practice Jewish religious beliefs in addition to worshipping in the temples and synagogues and marking Jewish festivals. The family of Jesus Christ was in fact Jewish and He himself used to quote Jewish bible. The followers of Jesus used to believe that he was the Messiah (Greek Christ) an important Jewish figure that had been prophesied in the Bible and whom all had waited for salvation. Though the early Christians also regarded themselves as the Jews, they later regarded their new sect as different from Judaism. The Christian council that had been called together by the apostles led by Peter and James made conclusions that those who had converted to Christianity from paganism needed not to observe the ritual laws of the Jews (Religion Facts, 2009).

There are many different similarities and differences between Christianity (and in this case Roman Catholicism) and Judaism. The first difference between these two religions is that Judaism believes in the idea of monotheism, the notion that there is only one God. They have often stated that God cannot be subdivided, whether united mysteriously or not. On the other hand, the Roman Catholicism holds to the belief of trinitarianism, meaning that God is one in three, God the Father, God the son and God the Holy Spirit. Though the Roman Catholicism have made it clear that their religion is monotheistic, the Jews disagree with this claiming that the idea of trinity weakens the notion of God being one. Judaism sees the idea of trinitarianism as a compromise to the conception of many gods by the pagans (Bezzina, 2010).

The second main difference between Roman Catholicism and Judaism is on the view of Jesus as the Messiah and the savior of human kind, which is a belief among the Roman Catholics. According to the Catholics, Jesus is God incarnate, who became flesh to take away the sins of people and free those who accepted him from sin. The Jews do not believe that Jesus was a son of God or the Messiah but just another wonderful story teller and teacher. According to Judaism, Jesus never rose from the dead and cannot save any soul and that only God can do so. Judaism does not accept that Jesus can forgive sins and that only God can do so after one prays for forgiveness from Him as well as from people who one has sinned against. Though Roman Catholics believe that Jesus replaced the Jewish law, Judaism still believes that the commandments and the Jewish law are binding even presently. As opposed to the Roman Catholics who believe that Jesus is the son of God, the Jews believe that the Messiah will be a human being who will bring peace on earth (Bezzina, 2010).

The Roman Catholics just like other Christian groups believe that there is no other way a Christian can be saved but only through Jesus Christ by his grace which he manifested by his sacrificial death on the cross. Judaism on the other hand refutes the claim that human beings were born with the original sin. Jews state that man is not born good or bad but has inclinations for both. He however has the freewill to choose good or bad. To the Jews, human beings decide what to act for they are not helpless when faced by a temptation (Bezzina, 2010).

While Roman Catholics are more concerned with where their destiny will be after they die, the Jews are less concerned. Judaism focuses more on how one can live good lives on earth so that they can improve their world, not being more concerned with life after death until the right time. Judaism does not have a vivid sense of hell and heaven, with various places in hell meant for different punishments. The idea that Judaism brings about is that God has set apart the afterlife to offer absolute justice (as well as final redemption for wicked) (Bezzina, 2010).

Similarities between Roman Catholicism and Judaism
Due to the fact that Christianity was born in the Jewish culture, there are several similarities between the two religions. First, both the Jews and Catholics regard the Old Testament as being canonical and thus authoritative. Though Judaism does not regard the New Testament as canonical, both groups read and study the Old Testament from Genesis to Malachi (Religion Facts, 2009). The other major similarity between Roman Catholicism and Judaism is that both religions as monotheistic. Judaism believes in one God Yahweh or Jehovah while Roman Christians believe in one in three God. Both religious groups regard idolatry or polytheism and as a great sin before God. Both religious groups believe that in addition to God, there are other spiritual beings that include angels and demons. Both Roman Catholicism and Judaism though may differ slightly generally believe in eternal reward and punishment after ones death. The concept of Heaven and Hell appears in the two religions. For one to receive salvation, both religions agree to the fact that one has to perform good deeds while on the earth. Both religions regard any form of offence against God will whether in deeds, words or thoughts as sin. In addition, though both Roman Catholics and Jews regard abortion as a sin against God, both view it as permissible in some circumstances as when attempting to save the life of the mother.

Conclusion
Despite the fact that the Roman Catholic Church is the largest Christian group in the world, its structure has enabled it to remain united. All the members recognize the authority of the pope as the head of the Catholic Church. In addition, the church has beliefs that bind its membership though some may be different from those of other Christian groups. There are several similarities and differences between Judaism and Catholicism. The similarities are due to the fact that Christianity originated from Judaism in one way or the other. The differences however should not be used to bring conflicts between the two religious groups but as a way to appreciate each other. ChristianJudaism forums should be organized to discuss common issues in the group and how both can try to tackle them.

When the Christianity spread throughout the world, its basic concepts clashed with the philosophies and spiritual influences of the East. This created a number of controversies that were subsequently resolved by ecumenical councils. One of the most criticized of the Christian views was the concept of the Holy Trinity and one of its early critics was the Egyptian priest Arius. The Arian heresy sought to prove that Christ was human and not God but this is not true as explained in this paper.

The Arian Heresy and the Nicene Creed
The Arian heresy refers to the theological teaching of the Egyptian priest Arius, who lived during the latter half of the 3rd and the first half of the 4th century. The Arian heresy specifically questions the logic behind the concept of the second person of the Holy Trinity of the Catholic Church. The Arian heresy holds that God the Son, or Jesus Christ, was created by the God the Father as a human being, thus there was when he was not, and only the Father is truly eternal God (Ludwig, 2005). Although this Arian view is widely accepted, it was later on condemned by the Catholic Church in the Council of Nicea in 325 AD as it clearly opposed the statement about the Holy Trinity in the Nicene Creed.

The Nicene Creed is the statement of the profession of faith of the Roman Catholics. It may be likened to the summary of beliefs that govern Catholics. The Nicene Creed states the nature of the Holy Trinity or the three persons  God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit  in one Godhead. The Second Person, in particular refers to Jesus Christ.

The statement of the Nicene Creed about the nature of the second person of the Holy Trinity, God the Son, or Jesus Christ, greatly differs from the Arian view. Arianism postulates the Fathers creation of the human Christ. However, according to the Nicene Creed, Jesus Christ is the only begotten son of God, that He is begotten of his father before all worlds, and that he is begotten, not made. Jesus Christ was, as stated, not made by the Father as a human being. He was begotten which is the past participle form of the word beget which means procreate, generate, cause, or produce as an effect. Being begotten means being produced. This clearly implies that Jesus Christ was not created by God the Father in the same way that Adam and Eve were created. Jesus Christ was, to temporarily replace the word begotten, produced by the Father from His own Being. The words of the Nicene Creed mean that even though He was human, Jesus Christ was also and is completely and fully God thus disproving the idea of the Arian heresy.

The Gospel of John and the Holy Trinity
The opening verses of the Gospel of John provide further support for the Trinitarian view. The first verse of the gospel states that when all things began, the Word already was. The Word dwelt with God, and what God was, the Word was. With God the Son, or Jesus Christ, represented by the Word, the very first sentence of the Gospel of John clearly implies exactly the same thing that the Nicene Creed states  that Jesus Christ was not created but was originally God even before He became human. The very first line, When all things began, the Word already was is trying to tell us that Jesus Christ has existed long before eternity, thus He was not only human as Arius contended but was fully God even before He was born, that is, even before the Word was made flesh.

The second and third verses of the Gospel of John state that The Word, then, was with God at the beginning, and through him all things came to be no single thing was created without him. All that came to be alive was with his life. This further supports the Trinitarian view, more specifically the nature of God the Son, as this line contends that Jesus Christ was with God throughout the whole course of creation and logically implies that Jesus himself was not created. This also implies that though Jesus Christ was somehow separate in being from God the Father, He was still an indispensable part of creation for without Him there would have been no creation.

The eighteenth verse of the Gospel of John says that no one has ever seen God but Gods only Son, He who is nearest to the Fathers heart, He has made Him known. This very clearly implies that Gods Son was with God the Father and has seen Him. Adam and Eve have heard Gods voice but have never seen him. And though Moses has seen God, still God the Son was, according to John, the nearest to the Fathers heart, which means that Jesus was not treated just like all creatures that were created. This means He was indeed not created as what Arianism holds.

Conclusion
The Arian heresy was no match for the volume of evidence found in the Nicene Creed and the Gospel of John regarding the nature of the second person of the Holy Trinity. All the evidence overwhelmingly points out that Christ was and is fully God and is never a product of Gods creation as what Arianism holds. More importantly, the weight of this evidence in favor of the validity of the divinity of Jesus Christ further strengthens the concept of the Holy Trinity.

The thematic relation between Romans, chapters 1-3
The book of Romans is a letter of Paul to the people in Rome who were the Jews and the Gentiles. Paul was the servant of Jesus Christ who had been sent to spread the good news. The central message of the book of Romans is the Gospel (the word of God). In chapter(12-5) Paul introduces the word that he wants to preach as the gospel of Jesus who in his human nature was a descendant of David with whom the spirit of Holiness was declared to be the son of God. The people of Rome who were already believers of the word of God had to be preached to  since if they would not hear it often they could not understand it as well. The Word of God was misinterpreted in the sinful nature of humankind when applying to our own lives and that of others hence the need of Pauls Gospel to the Gentiles and the Jews. Primarily, Pauls message was the plan of salvation which was universal and righteous (Chapter 116-17).

In Pauls message the main audience was the congregation of the church in Rome which constituted the Gentiles and the Jews. In chapter one, Paul is addressing the Gentiles (118-32) and giving them the reasons why he wants to preach the gospel to them. He reveals to them Gods anger against mankind because of their sinful nature despite Gods revelations. In chapter two (1-16), he talks of Gods Righteous judgment against the Jews because of their stubbornness and non-repentance nature despite being in possession of Gods laws. In chapter 217-28 and chapter 39-20, Paul is addressing both the Gentiles and the Jews, and informing the Jews who brag that they are the Gods law keepers yet they do not uphold it that God will bring Judgment against all, either Jews or the Gentiles without favoring either side as He is always justified. He also taught them Gods faithfulness that God is always justified and will bring judgment against the Jews and the Gentiles who are under sin.

In the book of Romans chapters 1-2 Paul has talked about the relationship between the important messages of sin, law and judgment, which makes the two chapters similar. In this chapters Paul is talking about the righteousness of God and the sinful nature of human being. He shows that Human beings are all sinners whether having been given the law as a guide of what to practice like the Jews or having Gods natural revelation to them. He shows not only the unrighteousness of man but also he emphasizes the need of man to be righteous irrespective of the kind of the revelation. In Chapter 3, Paul summarizes this righteousness and teaches that one need to be righteous by being faithful and as it is written that  man by faith is justified other than keeping the law only (317).

Though the two chapters talks of righteousness, in chapter 124-28, Gods wrath is shown as it talks of them being given over because of their heart desires. Since they have not been doing what God revealed to them naturally, the wrath they are experiencing is unnatural because of their sins. In chapter two, they do not know they are under sin since their wrath is to come in future (25) so they have time to change their ways to that which is dictated in the laws they observe. Chapter three is about both the Gentiles and the Jews that righteousness is not an option but the only way by being faithful through Jesus Christ for one to be redeemed by the grace of Jesus Christ (323-24).

Paul summarizes by saying that its all about ones faith that we shall be seen as justified or not.

As a religious concept, bhakti means devotional surrender to a supreme being for the attainment of salvation. This Supreme Being is a personally conceived God. The origin of the idea of bhakti has been attributed to ancient Indias Brahmanical and Buddhist traditions. Bhakti evolved from the status of being a mere religious doctrine into a large movement with a far-reaching social participation and a founded religious equality between the 7th and 10th centuries. The 10th century witnessed the climax of the movement after which its influence and popularity begun to decline. However, the movement became revived as an ideological and philosophical movement by various wondering scholars. During the period of Sultanate rule in the early 13 century, various different socio-religious movements arose across different part of India. The common characteristic among these movements was that they drew upon the concept of bhakti. The movements that emerged during the establishment of sultanate rule in had their own unique historical context, practices and ideologies. The non-conformist monotheistic movement which was largely associated with low caste saints only showed minimal resemblance with the other sects.

The social roots of the non-conformist movement, the ideologies it espoused, social constitution of leadership and its concept of god and bhakti distinguished it from other older bhakti movements and even later bhakti movements. Regardless of these superficial differences, the doctrine of bhakti spread among various sections of the society regardless of the sex or caste. The saint-poets preached the doctrine emotionally and furthered religious egalitarianism.

As a devotional idiom, bhakti religiosity is strongly inclined towards the presence of God, the devotees witnessing of this presence, and the actualization of this presence. To any individual familiar with the bhaki movement, this does not come as a surprise. However, the emphasis placed on the presence in the representation of bhaki results in inattention to the quietness and emissions in the historical record. The greatest gap that exists is the apparent role that Islam played in the emergence of bhakti movement. Apart from tracing the spread of this movement in India, this paper also aims at exploring the role that Islam played in the formation of the movement.

Monotheistic movement
The earliest and the most outstanding figure within the monotheistic movement that started during the 15th Century was Kabir. There were also other prominent saints during this time associated with the monotheistic movement. The fundamental teaching of the saints who were linked with this movement had distinct characteristics that offered the movement its unity. Most of the saints belonging to this movement came from the low castes and were aware of the unity of ideas which existed among themselves. In fact, the majority of the saints were familiar with each others teachings and influences. They make reference to each other in their verses in a way that indicate a harmonious ideological connectedness.

The vaishnava concept of bhakti, Sufism, and the nathpanthi influenced all the monotheists and non-conformists in varying degrees. The monotheists represented an integration of various elements of the three traditions. However, they rejected the original forms of these traditions and made many modifications which provided new meanings for old concepts.

The only way of forming a communion with God according to the monotheists was through personally experienced bhakti. Even though vaishnava bhakti saints also followed this doctrine, there existed one basic distinction. They were both considered monotheists owing to their undaunted belief in one God. The path followed by monotheists was independent of Islam and Hinduism which were the dominant religions at the time. They rejected any association or allegiance to these dominant religions and criticized some of their beliefs and practices.

An Analysis of the Bhakti Movement
There is no link between the Bhakti movement that existed during the Sultanate epoch and the older South Indian bhakti. However, they both derived their influences in one way or another from particular traditions and movements that can be traced back to the period preceding the Sultanate. These influences include the Bhagavat Purana bhakti tradition, nathpanthis, and the religious practices and ideologies of scholar saints. The bhakti doctrine if completely established in Bhagavat Purana which is the most famous of the Puranas composed about 9th century. The most outstanding feature is its stress on Vishnu bhakti particularly in the form of Krishna. The orthodox Brahmanical theory concerning the origin of the verna system is accepted by the Bhagavata even though it denies the superiority of the Brahmans based on status or birth. Bhakti is therefore the major criteria for it. The common link between the various bhakti movements has often been held to be Bhagavata Purana. However, there is no direct exertion of Bhagavata traditions influence on various monotheistic saints such as Nanak and Kabir. The majorities of the saints were not literate and thus did not directly access the Bhagavata and other scriptural texts. There is much disparity between the way Kabir conceived of the concept of bhakti and that of Bhagavata. Like other non-conformists, Kabir did not accept the scriptural and Brahmical authority neither did he believe in incarnations.

The influence of heterodox movements on the ideas of Kabir and other individuals who adopted monotheism is evident. Among these influences was that of nathpanthis. The majority of the preachers came from the lower castes and when Turkish rule was established in northern India, nathpanthi movements popularity experienced its peak. This took place during the thirteenth and 14th centuries. Ones caste did not bar himher from being initiated into nathpanthi yogis sect. the influence of nathpanthi on Kabir is clearly indicated in his independent thinking, style of utterances which is characteristically harsh, his non-conformist attitude, mystical symbolism and ulatbasi language. However, there was selective adoption of the ideas of nathpanthi among the monotheists and this was mainly because of their innovative and critical ways. Even then, these ideas were only adapted subjectively to suit their own purpose. The asceticism and esoteric practices that were characteristic of nathpanthi were rejected by Kabir. He was also opposed to the physical methods. In this regard, nathpanthis influence on the medieval monotheistic saints is more evident in their heterodox attitudes towards Brahmanical religion than the practices.

Influence of Islam
It has often been held that Islamic influence prior to and after the 12th century resulted in the birth of the doctrine of bhakti and the variants of the bhakti movement. This claim is founded on the various similarities between the bhakti cults and Islam. It has also been argued that the bhakti and bhakti movement can be traced back to indigenous origins. It has been pointed out in this paper that as a religious concept, bhakti emerged in the traditions of ancient India. The movement as it existed in south India cannot also be explained in terms of Islamic influence since there is evidence that it may have preceded Islam.

Conceptually, there is no peculiarity of a movement founded on the idea of devotion to any particular religion since devotion or grace can be independently established in various religions at different periods of time depending in the concrete historical conditions. Understanding medieval bhakti movement in its historical context would be more appropriate than exploring other sources of inspiration from any specific religion. The influence of Islam on bhakti cults cannot however be denied especially on monotheistic movements. Some of the ideas of non-conformist saints were derived from Islam. Such included the unabated belief and faith in one god, the rejection of incarnation, attack on idolatry and caste system, and their concept of nirguna bhakti. However, these ideas were not embraced without criticism and rejection of numerous fundamentals of orthodox Islam.

The movement of vaishnava bhakti cannot be seen in light of Islamic influence since they were not opposed to idolatry and caste system nor incarnation theory. They had a common belief in saguna bhakti. The kind of relation that monotheistic bhakti movement had with Islam appeared to have been that of mutual influence. The common ground was provided by Sufism. There are numerous ways through which the concepts of pir and mystic union with God which are central to Sufism correspond with the concept of guru and devotional surrender of God that was held by the non-conformist saints. It is even believed that Kabir was affiliated with Chishti Sufi saints even though there is no strong historical evidence for this affiliation. The junam-sakhis describes the encounters of Guru Nanak with the Sufis. Even though there was historical independence of Sufism and other monotheistic movements, there existed a striking similarity in some fundamental ideas they held. This included their common rejection of orthodoxies of Hinduism and Islam. However much the interaction between them was indirect, it must have provided a sufficient force for both of them.

The challenge theory
Among the modern perspectives associated with communal understanding of Indian history, is the view that the medieval bhaki movement arose due to an alleged persecutions of the Hindus under Muslim rule and to the challenge that Islam posed to Hinduism through its doctrines of Unity of God, equality and brotherhood. The proponents of this theory argue that the bhakti movements was an attempt to save the Hindu religion by getting rid of practices that were considered evil such as idolatry and caste system while at the same time defending its fundamental tenets by popularizing it. In other words, it was a defensive mechanism for saving the religion. Kabir and Nanak, among other saints, are believed to have carried out the task of cleansing the Hindu religion of idolatry and caste system. The task of defending the fundamental tenets of Hindu religion, while at the same time popularizing it, was accomplished by Tulsidas during the late 16th and early 17 centuries. However, evidence does not support this conception of the medieval bhakti movement.

This theory has been refuted on claims that the supposed threat to Hinduism by Muslims is inherently a projection of modern communal prejudgments into history. The critics of this view further hold that the Islamic doctrine of brotherhood had waned and all kinds of inequalities had infiltrated into the Muslim society. The Turkish ruling class looked down on the Indians who abandoned their religion and converted to Islam and therefore it served no purpose to convert into Islam because one still remained a second rate citizen.

The observation and celebration of Hindu festivals continued despite the Muslim presence. There is enough evidence to support the view that many people remained Hindu even within the proximity of the sultanate. Again, the orthodox dimensions of Islam and Brahmanism together with the ritualistic practices that characterized these faiths were denounced by the monotheistic saints. Assuming that the actions of all monotheistic and vaishnava bhakti saints was a response to Islamic threats fail to hold much ground since Kabir and together with other low caste saints did not have any unity of purpose with the saints affiliated to vaishnava cults.

Finally, the available texts and teachings of saints belonging to vaishnava bhaki do not suggest any concern with the influence of Islam. On the contrary, they suggest an indifference to the religion. There are even some suggestions that Muslims and Hindus stood side by side among the disciples of Chaitanya as had been the norm under Kabir, Dadu Daval or Nanak.

Conclusion
The sultanate period presents one the most widespread interconnectedness and variation of social and religious movements in the history of India after the 6th century B.C.s emergence of heterodox movements. The entire Indian country was influenced by these movements at varying times by espousing new social and religious ideas and practices. The majority of the current popular Hindu practices have their origin in the medieval bhakti movements. Apart from influencing the realm of religion such as the growth of organized religious communities such as the Sikhs and the evolution of sects, the bhakti movement also contributed to the growth of the variety of modern vernacular languages.

Death penalty is currently faced with a lot of opposition. One of the major issues which are currently facing death penalty is its ethical use. Ethics is about right or wrong. Since humans are moral creatures, they require praise for doing good things and punishment for wrong actions. There are various types of punishment ranging from the slightest to the more serious one like death penalty.  The kind of punishment given should be equivalent to the crime committed. Another issue which arises is that if we want to give punishment which is equivalent to the crime, are we going to rape rapists This is what happens when the theory of an eye for an eye is taken literally (Bedau and Cassell, p. 234).

Is it morally acceptable to execute murderous Yes, this is because it will prevent these criminals from engaging in this act again and the society will be safe from such dangerous individuals. The advantages of death penalty outweigh the disadvantages and the executioner is morally authorized to take the life of the murderous. Anti death punishment crusaders argue that killing is morally wrong, but what happens in a situation of self defense, should they also get the same kind of punishment When the issue of ethics is applied in death penalty, it makes the whole topic appear complex. (Bedau and Cassell, p. 234).

It is considered morally wrong to execute some one for murder however life imprisonment in well equipped prisons where the prisoners get free meals and families and friends visit regularly is not moral either. Although people will argue that prisons are not comfortable as described above, but this is the truth since criminal rights activists ensures that they are kept in a comfortable place and their rights protected. Forgetting about the conditions of the prisons, the right way for a murderer to pay for their wrong is through taking away their lives. If we opt for life imprisonment, is it going to be equivalent to loss of life We cannot afford to compare denial of freedom to losing ones life. Since punishment for wrongs like theft is by life imprisonment, then murder should get a harsher punishment than that since human life cannot be compared to material items or money (Ford, para. 5).

The criminals who are serving life imprisonment are supported by tax payers money. By sentencing murderous to life imprisonment, the families of the victims are among the tax payers who continue to pay for their well being. The prisoners may also decide to pursue courses which are offered at the prisons, the families of the victims will be supporting them indirectly. This is very unfair to the victims family and very far from the process of offering justice (Ford, para. 5).

Should we consider death penalty as revenge Death penalty cannot be considered as revenge because for it to qualify as revenge, it should be done by the victims family in the same manner in which their person was murdered. If the reason for state execution was revenge, then the criminals would be exposed to the same kind of treatment they gave to their victims before their death. The main purpose of death penalty is not making the murderer feel the same pain but to bring justice (Ford, para. 5).

In America, the murderous do not feel any pain when they are given death sentence. This is because the methods of execution used first of all render them unconscious before the lethal method is applied. For example, the most popular methods of execution are lethal injection and electric chair. As for lethal injection, thiopental sodium which is a sedative is first injected and this makes the person sleep, finally potassium chloride is injected which will cause cardiac arrest (Ford, para. 7). The immediate cause of death in this situation is respiratory and cardiac arrest. All these occur when the prisoner is a sleep. If we compare this manner of death to how murderous normally kill their victims, the short term pain which the murderous experience cannot be equated to the amount of suffering their victims underwent before they finally died (Caseys Critical Thinking, para. 9).

Arguments for death penalty
Fair or unfair application against the poor
Opponents of the death penalty have argued that it is applied unfairly on the poor. The main massage in this point is that death penalty is not applied fairly. This should not be the main reason for condemning death penalty. If death penalty is being applied unfairly then there is need to condemn all punishments. Saying that death penalty is being applied unfairly justifies its application in a fair manner. We should therefore not condemn death penalty but reform the justice system. If it is the system which is failing, then this calls for the fixation of the problem. It is not unfair that the blacks and the poor people get the punishment they deserve, but what should be unfair is that the rich and the white individuals escape the punishment they should get. The issue of biasness in passing death sentenced was ruled out in 2001 when the Justice Department found out that discrimination does not exist in the application of death penalty (Bedau and Cassell, p. 267).

Possibility of condemning innocent people
Before passing the sentence, the selected jury has to carry out all the possible investigation to confirm that the defendant was really involved in the crime. The probability of executing an innocent fellow is very minimal and chances of such errors occurring continue to reduce with advancement in forensic science. There are circumstances where death row prisoners have been freed but this does not mean that they were innocent. According to the Fifth Amendment of the Constitution of the United States of America, retrial is not allowed after the sentence has been passed even if good evidence is found. If retrial was allowed, the convicts would be exposed to more trouble than they were in (Lasslett, para. 7).

Conviction can also be reversed on appeal in situations where evidence present is not sufficient to prove that the defendant was guilty and in such cases retrial is not allowed. The defendant cannot be said to be innocent in situations where the evidence brought against him are not enough.  This kind of ruling indicates that the court failed to prove that the convict was guilty beyond reasonable doubts. There is need to know the difference between acquittal and innocence. The media participate actively in spreading the news of people convicted while innocent without clarifying whether the court failed to prove that the person was guilty beyond reasonable doubt or was innocent. Acquitted person is not innocent however the guilt cannot be established (American Civil Liberties Union, para. 4)

Death penalty as a deterrent against crime
Whether death penalty reduces the crime level or not should not be the concern, but should be viewed as an effective method of punishment which ensures that there is no repetition of the crime committed. The punishment is very effective since it ensures the death of the prisoner. Death penalty also serves as a deterrent since the executed murderer will never get involved in any criminal activity. Currently, there is no proof which have been brought forward of a person executed innocently, then we can conclude that the prisoners who escaped from the prisons or were released later murdered other innocent people. There are cases where released murderous later repeated the same crime. A good example is of 164 paroled Georgia murderous who were released. It is reported that 8 of them later committed murders within the first seven years of their release.  Even those sentences to life imprisonment still commit murder. Federal prison officers have been reported to have been killed by murder criminals. If these murder criminals were executed, the lives of the prison officers and other inmates would have been saved (Bedau  Cassell, p. 434).

Death penalty as cruel and unusual punishment
Death penalty has been described by anti death penalty crusaders as being brutal and a strange punishment. This cannot be true since it is supported by the constitution and there are laws put in place which guides it application. The constitution states that an individual should not be deprived of life without the due process of law. This law supports the use of death penalty and is recognized beyond doubt that it is not a cruel and strange punishment which is forbidden by the eighth amendment. The people who drafted the American constitution ensured that torture and other barbaric ways of punishment were prohibited (Acker, para. 4)

Murder is very different from other criminal acts like extortion, burglary or destruction of property and the kind of punishment offered for murder should also differ. The kind of punishment offered should consider the sacredness and self-respect of innocent human life. The kind of punishment given should be proportionate to the crime. Death penalty is moral and just since there will be no executions if murderous do not exist. Murderous are never innocent people but that their victims are. There is need to recognize that the rights of the victims are very important and should be protected (Lasslett, para. 10).

Arguments against death penalty
Death penalty is applied unfairly
Death penalty is applied discriminately against minority groups. The race of the defendants and that of the victims has an influence on the kind of punishment they get. Defendants from the minority groups most of the time get death penalty as compared to the whites. Although African Americans constitute 12  of the entire US population, 42 of the death row prisoners are blacks. In other states like Pennsylvania, 60 of death row prisoners are blacks.  The statistics also reveal that very few number of whites have been executed for killing black people.  Reports by Amnesty International further states that 20 of black defendants who received death penalty since 1976 were convicted by white juries. These are enough evidence to show that the lives of minority groups are not valued as those of their fellow whites therefore death penalty is not applied fairly (American Civil Liberties Union, para. 7).

Death penalty is meant for the poor
The wealthy people who can afford the best legal representation cannot end up in death row. Majority of defendants convicted of capital offences cannot afford the services of experienced attorneys to represent them. They are forced to use inexperienced and overworked lawyers. The time frame upon which capital trials are done is very short and do not give proper time to get a good defense.  The trial results are also quite obvious since the economic status of the defendant determines the results (Kennedy, para. 3).

Innocent people get convicted wrongly
Many people have been released from death row sentences because they are innocent. The application of appeal bargains and leniency as alternative for snitch testimony most of the times result in innocent people being convicted of wrongs they did not commit. Police and prosecutors normally fail to carry out proper investigations which can prove the defendants to be innocent. A good example to illustrate this point is the incident of 2003 where all the states death row prisoners were released based on the fact that the justice system was flawed to an extent that it was difficult to know the guilty and the innocent. This case point at a possibility that many innocent people have been executed wrongly (Kennedy, para. 4).

Death penalty does not serve as a deterrent to crime
Over the years, research has been trying to prove that capital punishment reduces the level of crime.  The research carried out has been criticized to have serious mistakes and omissions. The areas where many executions are carried are leading in crime levels. Since most murders are not planned, the murderers do not have the time to think about the consequences of their actions, therefore death penalty cannot serve as a deterrent against murder (Hinman, para. 5).

Evidence shows that death penalty does not act as a deterrent to crime. To prove this, a study was carried to estimate the level of crime in relation to the rate of execution in some states.  The study proved that between the years 1989 to 2002 in the state of California, one execution was carried out, Texas had 239, and New York did not carry out any. When the patterns of murder rates were considered, they were found to be similar in each year, however Texas had the highest average.  The study proved that as more executions are done, the rate of murder increase (Hinman, para. 6).

Death penalty is harsh and strange
In 2007, the process of executions was stopped in most states in America and the popularly used method of lethal injections was put under investigation. This came as a result of serious mistakes which the medical researchers found concerning the administration of the drugs. It was found that the injections were being administered in a wrong way which was leading to suffering of the prisoners being executed (Acker, para. 7).

The Christians take on death penalty
According to history, Christians were in support of capital punishment however in the recent years, many Christians have opposed death penalty arguing that Christianity should protect life. Christians base their arguments according to the teachings of the bible.  According to Pope Innocent III, the secular power devoid of earthly sin can carry out judgment over life provided that the powers are used fairly. The Roman Catechism also issued a statement over death penalty in 1566. It stated that the power of life and death had been transferred by God to the civil authorities. The power transferred was not to be used to murder, but to show respect to Gods laws.  The law of Vatican City from 1929 to 1969 accepted death penalty for any individual who attempts to assassinate the pope (Caseys Critical Thinking, para. 12).

A research which was conducted in the US in 1990 revealed that the churches which believe that the bible is the word of God like the Protestants were more likely to support death penalty as compared to other religious groups and churches.

Christians arguments in support of death penalty
Religious groups which support death penalty base their arguments on the teachings of the bible. It is stated in the bible in the book of Genesis Chapter 9 Verses 6 that whoever kills a fellow man should be punished by death. According to the Old Testament, death penalty is believed to have been created by God.  The Old Testament has a list of capital offences which include crimes like idolatry, murder, blasphemy, and magic (American Civil Liberties Union, para. 10)

In the New Testament, there is the most popular execution in the history of mankind and that is crucifixion of Jesus Christ who was accused of blasphemy. The main message in the New Testament is about forgiveness and the authority of the state to take someones life is not supported.  In the book of Mathew 72 it is stated that whatever you do to others will be done to you. What is not coming out clear is whether the action will be taken by God or the state. Although Jesus was teaching about peace throughout his life, there is no any incident in which he condemned death penalty or even barred the authorities from carrying out executions (Ballard, para. 6).

Christians who support death penalty do so basing their arguments on the fact that the state carry out executions not from their power but from the power of God vested in them. It is God Almighty who has power over life and death. St. Augustine supported this fact by stating that the divine law which prohibits killing of humans allows some exceptions in situations where God allows killing by general law or when He gives a clear charge to an individual for a short period. Christians in favor of capital punishment argue that by choosing to commit murder is like committing suicide. This is because when caught by the authority you will pay the offence with your own life. In cases of execution, the state cannot be said to have denied a murderer his life, but the murderer himself disposed his right to life (Acker, para. 8).

Christians arguments in opposing death penalty
Christians usually argue that only God can take away the life a person. This argument is mostly used to condemn abortion and euthanasia by doctors. Christians believe that according to Gods commandment, one should not kill. They take life to be sacred therefore there should not be any excuse to killing be it by state or not. It does not matter how serious the crime one might have committed, life should not be taken away (Marshall, para. 5).

The bible authorizes death penalty for murder and also for some other listed capital offences. Some of the offences listed in the bible are no longer punishable by death. This calls for the need to remove death penalty.  There are also other types of punishment which were never there during the biblical times and they serve as better bets for death penalty. The teaching of Christianity also puts much emphasis on forgiveness and compassion and capital punishment is not in line with these teachings (Marshall, para. 6).

Some groups of Christians argue that in countries where capital punishment is used, it is the poor who usually end up in death rows. This happens because they cannot afford to hire experienced lawyers.  According to the teachings of Christianity, Christians should support the poor.  Christians believe that life should be supported and cannot support death penalty since it fails to support life. The Christians stand for life is mostly applied in cases against abortion and euthanasia, but it should be extended to death penalty (Ballard, para. 8).

The application of ethics in the debate on death penalty results in justification of death penalty. Ethics is all about right and wrong and considering the consequences of the action you are about to take. It is upon the criminals to decide whether they value their lives or not. As much as there are various types of punishment which also differ in their severity, the kind of punishment passed to an offender should be equivalent to the crime committed. Murder criminals deserve death penalty as this ensures justice to the victim and his family members. Death penalty has also proved to be 100 deterrent to criminals.

In this world and in this earth, we have a god who created the entire world. God sent thousands of his prophets to the earth to let his existences know which their god is. Each Prophet has a successor to continue the Prophets message. There are three religions in this world came from heaven and specifically from the creator of this world. The first religion was the Jewish, second is the Christianity, and the last one is Islam. Each of the previous religions has a Prophet from God. Each Prophet has to tell people who their God is and tell them to pray only to God, not to anyone else. All people who follow their religion only believe that their religion is true. All religions are totally true for who believe in. In this research Im going to talk about the Islam religion, the households of Prophet Mohammed (Peace be Upon him), and their followers, ShiI.

The Islam religion is an Arabic Religion, but that does not mean it is only Arabs people that are Muslims. There are some people who are not Arab who follow Islam, and there are some Arab people who follow other religions other than Islam. Islam means peace in Arabic. According to Seyyed Hossein Nasr Islam considers itself the last world religion on the earth, and there will be no more new religion after Islam in this world. Islam believes and stands on there are no gods but God, who is called Allah in Arabic, and Mohammed, is the messenger of God.

Historically, Muslims have believed that God sent his revelation one final time to Prophet Mohammed (Peace Upon him) and the Muslims community and that they have an obligation to spread the faith. (John L. Esposito) Muslims believe in all previous religions and they also believe in all the Prophets that came before Prophet Mohammed (Peace Upon him) as a Prophet from God, but Muslims believe Prophet Mohammed (Peace Upon him) is the last Prophet in the world and the Islam is the last religion to come from God.

According to the Islamic history, over 1400 years ago, the Islam religion was begun by Prophet Mohammed (Peace Upon him) and it continued until the Prophet Mohammeds death. Each Prophet has a successor. Prophet Mohammed (Peace Upon him) had a successor which is Imam Ali. In fact, Imam Ali was the prophets cousin and a husband of the Prophets daughter Saydah Fatimah he continued to teach the message of Islam to the world with his sons Imam Hassam and Imam Hussain from the Prophet Mohammed (Peace be Upon him).

In the first year of the Islamic calendar, the angel Jibril (Gabriel) came to the Prophet Mohammed (Peace be Upon him) while he was praying to God in the Mountain of Mercy which is located in Mecca, Gabriel sent the revelation from God to Prophet Mohammed (Peace be Upon him) and told him that you are the last messenger of Allah, and you have to deliver Gods message to all humans. The message that Prophet had to deliver was the Quran, which is the Gods holy book, and the Islam religion The Quran has Gods words and what is needed in the Islamic rules. The Quran describes all the rules that Muslims have to follow and needed in their life including the Prophets words, which is called Hadith. The Hadith had been written by the prophets successors and friends. They save it for the humans who would come after the Prophet. Moreover, Muslims believe in Torah, Bible, and Quran as holy books that came from God to the humans to let them know who their God is. Also they believe that all the prophets came before Prophet Mohammed (Peace Upon him).

However, Islam begun in Arabia by Prophet Mohammed (Peace Upon him) and came to Syria, Egypt, Persia, North Africa, north India, and south China by Muslim successors. Before Prophet Mohammed (Peace Upon him) died, he told people after Alhajj in Mecca that the successor after him was Imam Ali and his sons. After Prophet Mohammed (Peace Upon him) died, Imam Ali was trying to collect Quran and Hadith from the papers and put them in one book. At that time, other men were friends of the Prophet tried to get the succession from Imam Ali, and they did. They told people, we are going to solve any problem you have and we are going to spread the Islam to the whole world. Most of people believed them and followed them. These people who believed and follow them are called Sunni at the current time. The people who still believe that Imam Ali must be the successor of the Prophet are called ShiI at the current time.

ShiI Islam bases itself, belief and teachings on the holy book of Quran. Thus it is not very different from the other schools of thought within Islam. This as a fact, makes the ShiI Muslims and other Muslims different factions within Islam and not necessarily different religions. They also have a strong belief on the messages passed by the prophet Mohammed (Peace Upon Him). All these point out to the similarities between the ShiI and other Muslims. The difference sets in when we consider the fact that the ShiI the family of Mohammed, usually referred to as the Ahl al-Bayt, meaning the people of the house and other people within this ancestry, usually referred to as the Imams are charged with spiritual as well as political rule in the community. In general, ShiI has a strong faith of Hadith Al kisaa, which is related to Prophet Mohammed (Peace Upon him). Hadith means conversation or talking, Al Kisaa means the cloak. The Hadith of Al Kisaa was about the five holy heroes who had been chosen by God. They are Prophet Mohammed (Peace Upon him), Imam Ali, Saydah Fatimah, Imam Hassan, and Imam Hussain.

One day Prophet Mohammed (Peace Upon him) came to his daughters house and he said to Saydah Fatimah I feel weakness in my body, bring the cloak for me and cover me. She covered him and then, Imam Hassan and Imam Hussain came to their grandfather and they asked their grandfather if they could get into the cloak, and he gave them the permission to get into it. After that, Imam Ali and Saydah Fatimah came to the Prophet (Peace Upon him) and they asked him if they could get into the cloak, and he gave them the permission to get into it. When they all get into the cloak, the Prophet raised his hand to the sky and he said O Allah, these are the people of my household (Ahlul-Bayt). They are my confidants and my supporters. They are from me and I am from them. O Allah bestow your blessings, benevolence, forgiveness, and your pleasure upon me and upon them. And remove impurity from them and keep them thoroughly pure. God accepted what his messenger wanted and God said I have not created the heavens and everything in this life, but for the love of these five lying underneath the cloak. God gave permission to the angel Gabriel to send the revelation to the Prophet Mohammed (Peace Upon him). From Hadith Al Kisaa, the followers of the Prophet Mohammed and his households (Peace Upon them) brought their faith and what to believe of the truth.

In fact, there is an Ayah in the holy Quran, and it talks about Prophet Mohammed and his households (Peace Upon them). Ayah means verse, but Muslims use Ayah only for Quran. This Ayah is talking about the purity of Prophet Mohammed and his households (Peace Upon them). Also, it shows that Allah focused on them, because they were pure from blemishes and from making mistakes. God sent his revelations by Gabriel to them to let them know that God accepted what Prophet Mohammed (Peace Upon him) wanted and God said in his holy book Verily Allahs desire is to remove blemish from you, O People of Household (Ahlul-Bayt) and purify you with a perfect purification. 33 33.

The ShiI follows the five of the Prophets households rules. Also, ShiI follows the nine Imams that came after Imam Hussain, who were son and grandsons of Imam Husain. They are included in the Ayah of the purification. Prophet Mohammed (Peace Upon him) said there will be nine Imams from my grandson Hussains generation, if you follow them you will never lose after me. However ShiI get their knowledge and rules from the Quran and the Hadith of the Prophet Mohammed and his households (Peace Upon them). Prophet Mohammed said in Imam Ali I am the city of knowledge and Imam Ali is its gate, if you want to get the knowledge come from the gate. What Prophet Mohammed (Peace Upon him) means in this Hadith is, come to Imam Ali he has enough knowledge, so ask him whatever you want. Also Imam Ali said My brother and my cousin Prophet Mohammed (Peace Upon him) taught me a thousand kinds of knowledge and each kind has a thousand chapters of knowledge.

In fact, after Imam Ali died, his sons Imam Hassan and Imam Hussain couldnt teach people and give them the knowledge, because the injustice that they and ShiI faced, such as Ashura the martyrdom of Imam Hussain in Karbala. Moreover, in time of the fifth Imam who is Mohammed Al Baqer, when he became a successor, he opened schools of Ahlul-Bayt and he taught many people in many kind of knowledge, such as Mohammed Al-Khwarzmi, who created Algorithm and Algebra in mathematics science, and Ibin Sina, who was the first Dentist in the past.

However the last Imam, his real name is Mohammed, but the popular name is Mahdi. All Muslims believe in Imam Mahdi. All Muslims groups except ShiI, believe that Imam Mahdi has not born yet. Only ShiI believe that Imam Mahdi has been born and he is still alive. God will make him live on the earth and God will cause him to live in it for a long time. Muslims believe that Imam Mahdi will come with Jesus on the earth and they will make the people equal between each other.

ShiI Islam owes its origin to a number of disputes that took place within the Muslim community during the early days. Shiites harbor the belief that Prophet Mohammed (Peace be Upon Him), had had nominated Ali, who was his cousin as well as son-in-law, to the position of His successor. In great contrast to the opinion of the Prophet, three leaders took this position (al-Muzaffar, Para. 8). They were Abu Bakr, Uthman ibn Affan and Umar. Ali was omitted from this list and was only considered as a caliph later after the assassination of Uthman ibn Affan. Alis authority did not prove to be very popular among some of the Muslims, the most notable among them being Aisha, who was the daughter of Abu Bakr. She engaged his supporters in the Battle of Camel, but lost the battle. A second wave of rebellion, this time under the leadership of Muawiyya, who belonged to the Ummayad clan. This was referred to as the Battle of Sefin. This battle led to the stabbing of Ali to death enabling Muawiyya to replace Ali as a caliph (Hooker, Para. 6). The sons of Ali, al-Hassan together with al-Husayn hoped that the caliphate would be returned to them upon the death of Muawiyya. This was not to be as it was passed to Yazid who was the son of Muawiyya. Husayn chose to mount a series of rebellious activities against the Ummayads but these led to a tragic end when Husayn and his family in the company of seventy followers were captured and killed at Karbala. Shiites gather at the site annually to commemorate this incidence. This is what marked the emergence of ShiI as a religious movement (Amin, Para. 4-5).

In conclusion, from all the Hadith of Prophet Mohammed (Peace Upon him) and what God said in the holy Quran, ShiI follow the leader of religion, Prophet Mohammed and his relatives (Peace Upon them). ShiI now return to scientists in religion which is called Ulama or Ayatollah of what they need in rules of religion and get the new rules for the present time from them until Imam Mahdi comes back to the earth.

Article 1 - Fleeting Impression a Girls College in Lucknow

This article is about authors observation of Muslim women belonging to a small community in Lucknow. Through this observation and in addition to trends noticed around the world, the writer in this article tries to point out that attitudes of people towards women education have changed and Muslim women have become more confident in their public conduct. These women, though most of them clad in Burqas, evidently understand their roles and position in the society. The writer goes on to describe the importance of imparting modern education to Muslim girls by citing the example of Karamat Husain Girls College.

Observing the case of Karamt Husain Girls College, it was found that its founder faced a lot of criticism and resistance while operating this college. However the founder was a strong believer in the fact that women education is necessary for both the country and communitys advancement. Even the teachers at this college were committed to this cause of educating girls and equipping them with skills necessary to survive in this male dominated world. They even went further, convincing the parents to send their daughters to schools. Old attitudes of people were observed to be changing and parents were more willing to send their girls outside homes. This resulted in large number of schools and educational institutions opening up in the community. The community however faced a lot of opposition from extremists against imparting modern education to women who termed any education outside the Madrasa system as irreligious.

It can be concluded that educating girls became the main agenda for this small community. Unfortunately this agenda failed to receive the required support from Muslim politicians. It is stated by all strong women of the world, whether Muslims or Non Muslims, that only literate women are able to better educate their children and provide them with guidance which ultimately leads to the over all progress of the community. According to a 19th century renown scholar Mumtaz Ali an educated woman can take care of herself better than an inexperienced, uneducated, mentally con- fused bundle of veils which has not been allowed to develop self-confidence and cannot take care of herself. (Dutta, 279)
 
Article 2 - The ConservativeReformist Conflict Over Womens Rights in Iran

The article talks about the conflicts between two groups over women rights in Iran since the Iranian Revolution. The Conservative group believes in the notion of duty and favor legalistic Islam tolerating no change based on modern society. The Reformist, on the other hand believe in the notion of rights and practice a more tolerant Islam promoting democracy and human rights. The debate over whether sharia issues should consider the contemporary societys demands became a source of conflicts between the two groups.  After the Revolution, talks about women rights issues began to emerge in government offices and publications.

The Reformist talked about civil society, freedom of expression and rule of law as a new language of rights and their argument that women demands must be acknowledged was largely appreciated by youth. (Hosseini, 39) However the Conservatives in return passed bills that demanded segregation of men and women in medical services and banning of women rights propagation. They accepted that equality is an Islamic principle but differed with Reformist on ways to establish equality.  The most controversial issue of hijab was not talked about for a long time but a law passed in 1936 that termed wearing hijab as an offence ignited the Conservatives. This resulted in a new law that made hijab compulsory. The Reformist proposed that hijab is about ones self belief and women should have a choice to adopt it or not. They also argued that imposing ones ideology of lifestyles on others provides no room for tolerance and people should be free to adopt any lifestyle by staying in the limits imposed by Islam.  The Conservatives, however, strongly oppose to this saying that lifestyle and religion cannot be separated.

It can be concluded that despite all this, the Reformist efforts continue to gain popularity as they base their argument on the fact that Quran treats hijab as a right and not duty thus it is purely a personal matter. An author known as Ahmed Abedini, stated in one of his articles that Hejab and dress are a personal matter, and it is up to the individual to decide on its form and requirements, and these verses do not indicate any duty for the authorities in this respect. (Hosseini, 51) Secondly the power struggle between the Reformists and Conservatives is razing out the foundation of Islamic Ideology on which the State was built.

Article 3 - Do Muslim Women Really Need Saving Anthropological Reflections on

Cultural Relativism and its Others, American Anthropologist
Abu-Laghod in this article talks about ethics of war on terrorism and debates whether anthropology  the study of cultures  justifies the American involvement in Afghanistan in order to liberate Afghani women from rule of Taliban. The Western World especially US have always used the women sufferings in the Muslim countries as an excuse to gain their political motives. Therefore understanding the culture of region and its religious beliefs is more important than knowing the political history in order to justify the war on terrorism. However the Wests concern about the plight of Afghani Women is strongly focused on veil as a sign on oppression instead of highlighting other causes such as poverty, ill health and illiteracy.

Through the study of the Afghani culture, it has been found out that the burqa is one of the many forms of covering used by women of some ethnic groups of Afghanistan. Burqa for these women is a sign of respect that provides them protection and segregation from men and guided by the Islamic principles. An anthropologist Hanna Papanek described burqa as portable seclusion which allowed women to move freely while observing the basic Islamic requirement of segregation. (Lughod, 785) Moreover every community has its appropriate dress based on their social standards and religious beliefs. Similarly Muslim women in different communities use different forms of covering. What created problem in Afghanistan was that Taliban forced a similar kind of covering for women of all communities. So even if these women are liberated, they would continue to adopt some of the form of coverings.

The writer urges that symbolizing veil as a sign of non freedom need to be stopped. This is what women in Afghanistan chose for them selves. Instead the fight for their freedom must concentrate on freedom from poverty, illiteracy, poor health and unemployment. The author further stresses this by stating that  . African or Afghan women could have some chance of having what I do believe should be a universal human rightthe right to freedom from the structural violence of global inequality and from the ravages of war, . (Lughod, 787) These women want justice in a different way as many of them support feminist movements that fight for injustices together with Islamic orientation.  Thus to bring a social change requires clear understanding of the differences and respecting them.

Article 4 - Muslim and Non- Muslim Differences in Female autonomy and Fertility

Evidence from four Asian Countries
This article examines the claim that lower level of power and autonomy of Muslim women explains the higher fertility of Muslims. The article first mentions the different hypothesis to this claim with their reasoning. Further the article describes about the study conducted to test the validity of the claim. A random sample of Muslim and Non-Muslim communities from South Asian counties were selected for this purpose. The three dimensions of womens autonomy on which the claim was tested were freedom of movement, economic autonomy, and exposure to intimidation.

Based on this, several theories have been suggested. First explanation suggests that the Islamic social system increases demand for children as womens access outside home is limited which make them more family focused. The author states where group norms and practices limit womens mobility and their contact with nonfamily members, womens exposure to novel ideas or technological innovations, including contraceptives, may be constrained ( Mason, 517) The second hypothesis argues that differences in fertility are related to socioeconomic differences. The third hypothesis focuses on religious teachings saying that Quran favours childbearing. The last hypothesis argues that the level of constraints a group faces explains differences in fertility levels.

To explain these hypotheses the study reveals certain findings. The findings illustrate that Muslim women are more likely to have children, desire more children and less likely to use contraceptives compared to non Muslim women. However the higher levels of fertility in Muslim women is neither linked to the lower level of power and autonomy they possess nor to socioeconomic background like education, household consumption etc.

The higher level of fertility among Muslim groups can be explained by both religious and political reasons. Demographically Muslims are in a minority which imposes several political constraints on them. Secondly in Islam a woman holds a central position in childbearing. Moreover contraception is not supported in Islam. These two factors force the Muslims to be in favour of having a greater number of children and oppose contraception.

Article 5 - Interpreting Gender in Islam A Case Study of Immigrant Muslim
Women in Oslo, Norway

This article talks about the practice of gender relations of first generation Muslim women in Oslo, Norway. It also throws light on women participation in the labor market. Islam is used by various women in order to support their gender outlook and thoughts within the household and labor market. Women have been seen to have gained power and legal rights in various areas. The article goes on to describe the context, methodology and the four analytical definitions of gender relation views pertaining to Islam. Furthermore, it examines variations found in gender practices among the Muslim women immigrants of Oslo and relates them to the analytical types.

In actuality, change relating to gender practices is slow. In order to seek more information on gender relations, interviews with 37 Muslim women and 6 imams in Oslo took place. The women fit in one of the four analytical definitions of gender relations sameness-oriented modernists, who believe men provide for the family and women handle household chores although they have the right to make their own decisions society-oriented Islamists, who believe gender roles are interchangeable though the womans primary duty is to look after the house and family family-oriented Islamists, gender segregation where men and women do not enjoy the same rights culture-oriented traditionalists, subordinated roles for women compared to their husbands with limited rights to work.

It can be concluded that the immigrant Muslim women of Oslo use Islam to interpret their roles at work and home. Their practices are most often driven by the view they take of Islam. The author concludes by stating that Womens actual interpretations of Islam are informed by their upbringing and education, their class and cultural identity, their knowledge of normative Islamic discourse, their esteem for religious leaders who interpret Islam and the women and men they interact with in everyday life.  (Predelli, 489) The four analytical definitions help in the clear identification of the variation of practices among the women. The country provides strong support for interchangeability of roles of men and women though women continue to face challenges and pressures at home and work.

Sunna refers to the traditions or customs of the prophet Muhammad which are used by the traditionalists in making legal decisions in resolving disputes. Prophet Muhammad was the messenger of God who at all times was believed in all his teachings, practices, and decisions as to have come from God. The Muslims had to obey Him in whatever the verdict he arrives at. These included the deeds, sayings and all that was out of his own knowledge. Decades after his death, the recorded words and actions were finally put or written as one powerful collection. The prophet Muhammad was interpreting the divine revelation as he was in time and spirit nearest to the Quran as he used to go to the cave of hira for his personal prayers .This marked the beginning of the Islamic sunna 7.

Islamic ethics refers to the ideal norms of behaviors upheld by the Muslim community, whose major source is the Quran. Islamic texts function as a major source of Muslim norms for example the Niche of Lamps of al Khatib al tabrizi which covers the topics on faith ritual prayer, fasting, and dressing, marriage governing and justice. In the Quran Muhammads marriage should not be seen as a weakness on his part as a human being but was a way of showing the coming together of the Muslim community. It also talks about Jihad (the holy war) whereby the faithful are at war with the enemies of faith.
 
The traditionalists who were involved in making legal decisions mostly depended on the Quran and sunna traditions. Muhammad established four sources of Islamic law which are the Quran ,sunna (traditions of the prophet), qiyas and ijma(unanimous agreement), these sources are used by Muslim law makers in decision making to put on check the ethics and norms of the Muslims.
 
The prophets authority was valued and seen as a spiritual directive by the Muslim community besides being trusted and respected as a community leader. He resolved disputes always and the Muslims used to go to him for direction in case there is any issue. He always encouraged his believers to put into practice the values laid down by ijtihad on daily basis.

There was a major theme in the teachings of the prophet which talked mostly about those who had no fear of the end times (Q 630-32). When God made the heaven and earth in truth it was to be used to reward each soul according to its deeds (Q4522). There will be terrifying mood on the day of judgment and reckon as each soul will give an account of their deeds. The sinners will be thrown to hell while others will be saved (Q8712-13).
Muhammad left the Ifadnh (sayings) and the sunnah or wonts (his life and daily practice) for the Muslim community after his death. His companions and family members whom they were together with followed his traditions deeply in their souls. Generation of Muslims with great passion practiced these traditions of the prophet Muhammad. The following generation followed up to the recent times when those who are faithful are seeking to emulate the life of the prophet. They refer to the hadith in all aspects of life as it contains the opinions, decisions and the answers he gave the Muslims for their challenging questions. The Muslims were to obey the prophet in all he says, take whatever he gave them and to stay away from all that he has told them not to do.

The process of scriptural canonization is based on the following criteria 1) the scripture must have been written during the time of the apostles, 2) it must contain the basic tenets of orthodox Christianity, 3) it must have been declared by chief Church leaders as essential tools for Christian education, and 4) it must have been approved by the Roman pontiff himself. At the Council of Nicaea, Bishop Athanasius persuaded Emperor Constantine the Great to issue an edict transcribing the old apostolic books. Church officials catalogued books, writings, and other essential documents of Christian faith. St. Augustine proposed the creation of a book of books which would incorporate and consolidate the Christian faith.

The Gnostic texts (even those found in the Nag Hammadi Library) were outrightly rejected because 1) they were inherently contradictory, 2) they were written after the apostolic period, and 3) they did not conform to the essentials of faith declared in the Council of Nicaea. Followers of Gnostic Christianity, as Bishop Irenaeus argued, quarrel over the essence of Christ, while formally declaring the efficacy of the Christian religion itself. This stance was quite ridiculous for early Church Fathers. If Christianity was to prosper, it must have a unified, non-contradictory, and radical theological base. Indeed, it was not only politics which defined the rejection of the Gnostic texts, but also orthodox theology.

According to Pope Pius V, a heretic is an individual cut off from the Holy Catholic Church who does not profess the essentials of Catholic faith. Martin Luther, by abandoning the Catholic Church and faith, is cut off from the Holy Church, and therefore, a heretic. Note that in Catholic theology even a pope who professes heresy cease to be a pope and is cut off from the fruit of salvation.

The book Universe Next Door  is basically one of the rare books which trying to bring the core of the prevalent world religions.The book staes the point of views of The Higher energy or so called GOD and the way the humankind has been has been interpreting it till date.According to him many people on this planet follow religions without even being aware that they are a part of religion.The book shows and perhaps raises a very important question what if we are not following a religion  Even we are an atheist we still would be classed as atheist which is a type of religion after all.The main aim of mankind since the days of its existence has been find out the cause of the things we cant interpret.living in a pluralistic society we strive to find out what is the reason of the things the way they appear to be.Every human being is different and has a point of view about some sort of supreme being if He or She exists.This book primarily deals with the most prevalent world famous religions.The book is good, lucid and a good read for those who are not into religion and theology too.This secular book deals clearly about the various of ideas. On a personal basis this book has influenced my thought about the religion and prejudices I had been having without my own knowledge.The book has given me an insight that all humans are equal even though we may be complex machines or may not even be existing in real.Although this book creates a turbulence of logical reasonings in ones own mind but it never propagates any particular religion or supports its too discretely.But overall this book teaches us and enlightens us about the craving of us humans to find something works subtle way guiding the cosmos or may be its we humans that we need something to hold on to . The book raises a lot of questions and leaves the human mind to ponder the realms.

Theism Middle Ages 500-1500 (1000 years)
This Chapter of the book shows the nature of god as omnipotent,omniscient,omnipresent.It states that God  is personally in contact with all of us and we are nothing but a part of god.. According to Christian Theism God is not the only controller of the human life or universe but also He lets us , humans to infuecne our so called life.It represents the idea of christianity that God had provided all his qualities to the humans but we humans have devolved from that part and now we can choose so as to enter his realms after death or hell which is a place where our human aspirations might be all fulfilled but it would be eternal separation from him.But he contradicts himself as he states that history is a sequence of events going on as per the plan of God that will help him fullfill the purpose of making humanity. The question arises there that if the history has been a part of his plan then why not present  And if it is then how are we choosing our path because ultimately the plan of God has to succeed.

Deism Renaissance 1500-1630 (130 years)
Only Basic Deism has been discussed by the author.According to this theory we humans are a part of a bigger system in a clock work manner.Every thing has its own cause and effect.God has made us and left us to work it out on our own.He has been stated as just a type of energy who is not at all accessible by the living beings.He has just created the universe in a closed system which means that no miracles are possible because God does not take any interest in human affairs. He just seldom has a glance at the world and is not at all interested in it. We can understand the mysteries of universe as well as God just by gaining knowledge. God is nothing extreme supreme intelligent just some matter of energy which has created life and can be understood by studying it .Deism basically shows the practical side of human life as it states that universe does what is write and ethics are dependent on the humans not on any super power.

Naturalism Enlightenment 1630-1870 (240 yrs)
Naturalism provides a more subtle and euphemistic view point of spiritual realms. Naturalism states that matter has always existed and it was not created by any super power .The whole cosmos exists as the matter in the whole universe is balanced.We human beings exteremely volatile complex manifestation of the scientific properties we yet do not understand. Unlike in christianity and deism death has been accepted has nothing but end of life and individuality.Naturalism does not rely on supernatural events but is concerned about practical point of views for getting knowledge about the working of the universe.Also Naturalism supports secular humanism as it removes all the diversity of religion and unites humans beings as one and all. That is why naturalism has also been adopted by the Marxists because according to Marx the principle to be free to social naturalism and transfigure from idealism to materialism and thereby can arise a conception of positivism where every law is made by authoritative social process. Also Naturalism states that since God does not exist we humans have to adjust our ethics as per the time we are in.

Nihilism 1870-1930 (60 years)
Nihilism is a very interesting topic which has negated all the positivity of human existence.According to ethical nihilism there is no morality because there is no good or bad .right or wrong as every action benefits some or the other human being.Again metaphysical nihilism states that there might be no existence at all as there are no objective qualities to separate the real from non real.

Existentialism 1920-1965 (45 yrs) Existentialism has been explained in two ways by Sire. Basic Atheistic  Basic Theistic.

Basic Atheistic
This philosophy states that even though the cosmos is solely in perfect harmony with matter we humans are of two types . Subjective and Objective.Being human our existence precedes our essence and we are the sole owner of our selves and our destiny.We make ourselves who we are .The whole world is organised perfectly but humans.The real authentic human is supposed to bring about a change through his actions and create something which has substanstial value in the universe. Sire has successfully separated Nihilism and Basic Atheistic Existentialism by a thin line .

Basic Theistic Existentialism
Basic Theistic Existentialism is full of positive morales. According to it human beings have the ability do develop counsciousness and when they achieve it find themselves in some new universes.The questions as to whether God exists or not has been kept as a matter which should be unravelled by faith rather than reasons.This philosophy focuses on the individual self to be precise and values it. Knowledge has not been provided equal stands with faith in here.Because knowledge has been looked upon as a subject and Whole Truth has been stated to be often too paradoxical.This branch of philosophical spirituality does not reckon History as any thing but records of events which have been done in the past, but still is provided with extreme importance.Interestingly this Basic Theistic Philosophy has similarities with the Eastern Pantheistic Monism which has been discussed in the next chapter.

Eastern Pantheistic Monism 1950-1975 (25 yrs)
According to it Atman (Soul) is the small manifestation of the Brahman (Supreme Soul). Every human is thus a part of the supreme soul as they have a soul.All the things that we do have a reason and its own importance.Most if not all the path we take in our life to understand spirituality leads to the same Brahman.Being a part of the supreme soul an individual is encouraged to look within self to understand the soul and be one with the soul.In that way by achieving oneness with the soul one can understand the cosmosbut for that one has to evolve from hanging on to individualistic personality.And to understand the cosmos fully one has to pass beyond knowledge as knowledge is subjective.Also the principle of non contradiction does not apply where ultimate reality is concerned because that is the supreme soul we are engaging with so it is beyond every possible matter and reality.Then again we have to look beyond good and evil and be neutral because the cosmos which is a manifestation of eternal supreme soul brahman is is perfect and stable and any given moment of time.Death is looked upon as end of personal individualistic existence but not the end of soul as the characteristics of soul does not change, it is constant forever.And to ultimately unite with the supreme soul brahman one has to pass beyond cosmos and time as time is unreal and the history is nothing but cyclical because history is dependent on time and the brahman is beyond time.
This philosophy has there fore contradicted with most of the western spiritual theories.

New Age 1965-1990 (25 yrs)
According to Sire there has been a tremendous radical change in the human existence which has laid a deep impact on his inference of the universe and ultimately changing the spiritual laws.The new age religion has manifested its principles from understanding cosmos and universe by various subjects like psychology,anthropology,natural science,health,politics,psychic theorists,trans-personal psychology,movies ,fiction and so on.

The basic principles of New Age Religion are
No matter whatever is the nature of the being,be it matter,energy,idea its self is the ultimate reality.We, humans are on the verge of a new change as we grasp the above mentioned fact.The whole cosmos when in oneness with self can be represented in various dimensions. First the universe which can be inferred by ordinary level of consciousness like the five senses and other is the subconscious self which can only be interpreted by the mind in various states of consciousness.That is where drug therapy,psychology and psychic theories are incorporated.As we humans look into our soul to achieve unity with the supreme the laws of space,time and morality merge with each other.And as we tend to look for the supreme self consciousness our fear of death and miseries are eradicated because only the individual dies not the soul.
The metaphysical realms of the new age religion can be understood only by 3 ways
The occult version according to which all matter exists apart from self consciousness
The psychedelic version according to which every matter is a projection of self.

The conceptual relativist version according to which the cosmic activity of a mind can be used to interpret any models for reality where none of the truth contradict each other.The example of new age has been well explained by citing Shirley Maclaine as an example.

Post Modernism 1990-2011 (11 yrs)
Post modernism has risen from critical acclamation of philosophical views of continental philosophy,structuralism and existentialism. This branch of philosophy stresses the problems of a philosopher by differentiating  the knowledge from ignorance, social taboos. It has quite similiar features with that of Nihilism. It has been widely influenced by decontructionism, post structuralism in the 20th century.It largely battles the emotionally charged ideologies.According to new age philosophers post modernism is one of the most depressing philosophies of the western world where it states that we have stopped growing and all the ways have been explored and we are doomed to strive the for the meanings eternally.As a result it is also reffered to as weak theology in some parts of the world as its states God to be weak and as a result he does not interfere with the works of the nature so its the human kind who has to take up the reigns and bring about a change.And as God is weak this philosophy emphasizes weak virtues of the humans like kindness,forgiveness,compassion,sentiments etc.As a result it parables the state of power in powerlessness.