Religion and Theology

Inerrancy is a terminology which relates to doctrine and is mostly used when facts are well outlined. The interpretation of autographs gives the truth of what is contained in scriptures. There have been several debates on whether the bible is inerrant. The interpretation of the bible gives some light on faith and the relationship with God. Biblical interpretation raises many answered questions on the relationship between man and God. People realize the revelation of God through the scriptures in the bible. The scriptures in the bible have been used to define Gods guidance. The bible gives coverage of the life of Jesus and His apostles. Through the bible, people ascertain His guidance through scriptures (Stephen, n.d). The bible is considered as a tool used for equipping, convicting and encouraging people. God portrays himself to His people in written form. The scriptures helps in gathering faith based on doctrines.

Stephens article about Biblical inerrancy looks in to the argument relating inerrancy. He observes the validity of these claims by considering each argument. There are three presuppositions which were put forth by Andrew. These include Gods existence in inspiring the Bible, the canon of Hebrew Scriptures and the concept behind resurrection. Gods existence in the bible and the issue of resurrection seem to be reasonable. The issue of arguing from the point of Hebrew Scriptures may be odd since these give biblical arguments on the manner Jesus distributed authority. Stephen proves inerrancy by giving valid support on the issue. He dismissed any historical arguments which obtained stability through listening. Andrew pointed out the weaknesses on some inerrantists for defending the argument on epistemological (Stephen, n.d.). He provided light on historical argument by ascertaining that historical argument is directed to historical norm.

There is some strength which can be attained from Stephens stand on Epistemological argument. The inductive argument directed towards Andrews viewpoint indicated the strength in Epistemological argument. Stephen pinned down Davis argument of human reasoning. Andrews Biblical argument on prophecy showed his weak points. He quoted various scriptures which highlights on prophecy. Amongst the quoted scriptures are Mathew 5 and 2peter1. Stephen argument about the Biblical interpretation is complete.

My viewpoint is the support of inerrancy in the bible. The importance of inerrancy can be attained by referring to the several quotes indicted in the article. The scripture is normally taken be the word of God. Therefore the scripture is considered to be inspired, thus presenting the doctrine of inspiration. The consideration of the scripture as the world of God makes one believe inerrancy of the bible.  I coincide with Andrews Biblical argument. My differing view to his stand is the manner in which he concludes about the argument. Gods inspiration has been narrowed down to prophecy. This is according to the quotes provided by Andrew. This is contrary to Pauls teaching about Gods inspiration in the scripture. God is considered to inspire the scripture. This can be evidenced by scriptures contained in Matt and Numbers (Stephen, n.d.). The logical argument would therefore be Gods appearance in written form, Gods inspiration of the scripture and the inerrancy of the bible since god can not lie. It is clear that the bible is full of inerrancy. The reference made by Jesus remains unknown since most of the scripture are believed to be inspired by God.  All the words contained in the bible are inerrant.

Religion is a personal fundamental possessing individual rules and doctrines that dictate an individual.  Systems of belief, personal faith, and adherence to religious law define the philosophy of religion.  The fields of anthropology and psychology have both stemmed from questions proposed by religious scholars and followers.  Biblical law coincides with certain man-made laws, but when society is faced with a moral dilemma, it quickly abandons religious theory in order to appease its own guilty conscious.  There are many benefits to having a steadfast and affirmed religious faith.  Those who come to know and accept Christianity as a personal religion and faith do so willingly.  No one is forced to be a Christian.  With all the troubles in the world today, everyone needs to be able to believe in something.  Christianity holds the answer to all the questions and troubles of the world.
                                                                                                                 
Children are known for believing just about everything that they are told.  Much like believing a fairy-tale, children believe in the Easter bunny, the tooth-fairy, and in Santa Claus.  As children begin to grow and mature, their belief and value systems begin to grow and evolve also.  The news of learning that the Easter bunny, tooth-fairy, and Santa Claus were all fabrications can be very devastating to a child.  Adults, like children, need something or someone to believe in.  Whom and what adults choose to believe in is entirely up to the individual.  The religion of Christianity is not a mere fable, nor is it a belief that appears magically.

Christianity is a way of life.  It has provided answers, healing, and comforts to many a person whether during a period of despair or a time of celebration.  Christians have a conscious awareness of their own spiritual wellbeing.  Christianity is a religion that allows an individual to be content, at one with life in general, and allows them to develop a personal relationship with God.

Anthropology
Human beings are uniquely constructed masses of atoms and molecular cells all combined and infused with a spirit, or soul. Mankind is the combination of all men and women living everywhere on the earth (Levi-Strauss, 1963).  Christians believe that everyone has a soul.  From the day of birth, each person possesses an inner spirit that guides every action, decision, thought, and feeling.  In an ending episode of the sitcom Roseanne, the main character played by Roseanne Arnold states, we are not bodies with souls, but we are souls with bodies.  Christians believe that everyone is born a sinner.  Everyone is capable of being good and bad, but it is not a profound Christian belief that some people are born good while others are born as a bad seed.  Christians believe that people function in everyday life with the use of freewill and make choices and decision by their own doing, but not from some underlying facet (Deuteronomy 3019, NIV).
                                                                                                                   
Purpose
All human beings came from Gods hand.  God created each person from his image. The Bible says, The LORD God formed the man from the dust of the ground and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life, and the man became a living being, (Genesis 27, NIV).  The purpose of existence has yet to be determined.  In Christianity, there are simply some answers that cannot be answered until the day of judgement comes.

SinImmoral Actions
Christians strive to be sinless, but this is impossible to truly achieve.  When someone comes to know Jesus Christ and accepts Him into their heart, then that person is saved.  In other words, the person is once again clean, pure, and sinless.  Christians are not perfect individuals and go to God reverently in prayer asking for forgiveness for transgressions (Monda, 2007).  If a Christian is truly remorseful for the sinful act or word done against God, then God forgives them.  God is not a merciless God, but rather He is a God of love.

Salvation
Christians know where they are going after they cease to live and breathe.  Christians are going to Heaven.  Salvation through grace is the highest level for a Christian to attain.  Once a sinner is redeemed, that person is washed in the blood of God and saved by being blessed with eternal life in Heaven.  Ephesians 28 says, for it is by grace you have been saved, through faith-and this not from yourselves, it is the gift of God (NIV).  Salvation is not earned either.  Salvation is granted unto each Christian for living a Christian life, following Gods laws, and doing good unto fellow man.  Salvation is not earned by simply going to church on Sunday mornings and dropping a few dollars into an offering plate.  Salvation is not possible after death.

After one dies, Christians believe that there is no turning back.  It is too late.  Repentance from sin and acceptance of the Lord as ones God and Saviour must be done on earth (Weiss, 2006).

God
Many Christians believe that God is very personal.  Over time, Christians develop a close personal relationship with Christ.  Christ guides Christians throughout their daily lives and provides comfort to them during their hours of need.  The close personal relationship with God provides a sense of wanting to do better as a Christian.  It provides a deeper meaning and understanding into what God has intended for Christians to know and live.  Christians ultimately learn that there is only one true God, and that He is the father of Jesus Christ (Welch, 2007).

God and Salvation
God took upon Himself the ultimate act of sacrifice in order to prove his love for mankind.  For God so loved the world that he gave his only begotten son, so that whosoever believes in Him should not perish, but have everlasting life, says John 316 (King James Version).  God also says that no one will ever enter the kingdom of Heaven except through his son Jesus.  Jesus is the only way to live eternally.  When God sacrificed His son for the sins of all humans, He did so willingly and out of love.

Discussion
Christians are normal people.  The do not fly around with wings and halos either.  There are too many stereotypes about who Christians are and what they believe.  Some prefer to categorize Christians as bible-beaters and brow beaters, but this simply is not true.  Christians eat, sleep, marry, have families, go to school, work, and even have fun.  The choices that a Christian makes define their religion.  Some Christians are more rigid than others while some Christians are more modern in their ways of thinking.  Either way, it is a personal choice.

The book Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul by William Chittick is a concise account of the rich historical data that guides ones appreciation of Islamic traditions from the ancient periods. As the natural science understands the philosophy of cosmology, it refers to the branch of physics that solely deals with the origin as well as development of empirical universe. In essence, cosmology is braced with the formation of galaxies and in the concept of William Chitticks book, cosmology evokes a broader meaning of the entire story of mythos, incorporating both spiritual and physical dimensions by which human beings draw the basic mystery of existence. The book summarizes the question of how we place ourselves and similarly define our responsibilities and meaning in the world. This paper seeks to summarize and analyze Chitticks argument in the book Science of Cosmology, Science of the Soul in an explorative review.

The Science of Cosmology, the Science of Soul captures the Kantian settlement between science and religion, thus tying the theological maxims to basically pass a scientific theory. Theologians in the contemporary world have steered clear of cosmological synthesis into which Chittick postulates as Einstein did that religion that is detached from science is blind and science that is without religion is lame.

This book begins with a snippet historical introduction into every aspect of Islamic religion and the challenges it faces as a result of scientific innovations. From the explanation of the language of traditions of religion to the discussions of metals, planets and elements of material prima as well as alchemy of prayer the book is devoted to the stages of work and its correspondence to the stages of spiritual life as evidenced in different traditions. This extensively proves beyond any doubts that there is an inner relationship between cosmology and spiritual life. The issues raised in this book center around the perception of invocation that is central to the spiritual realization in many traditions and as it is connected to the question of cosmology (Chittick,
2007).

In addition, Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul abounds illustrations from traditional Islamic texts and manuscripts which enhance the penetration into the mysteries of cosmology and religion through which the meaning of its methods and symbols is revealed. With regard to this, cosmos, with its elements of materia prima, states the purity which makes possible the wedding of the soul, the spirit and the moon as well as the sun. Cosmos facilitates the possession of spiritual knowledge. For instance, as greater mysteries, cosmos enhances the possession of intuition of spiritual significance of traditional art. In essence, it makes it possible to descend from the spiritual to the material and then unravel many of the mysteries of the universe.

According to Chittick in this book, traditions of religion clearly bring out the distinction between two modes of knowledge namely transmitted and intellectual. Essentially, transmitted form of knowledge is passed on from generation to generation while intellectual is learnt by training the mind and polishing the heart. Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul holds that transmitted knowledge is revealed knowledge and thus comes from supreme beings. For instance, God wants the believers to fast during the Holy month of Ramaddhan and therefore revealed it to his prophets to transmit it to believers a factor that has been transmitted from generation to generation. On the other hand, intellectual knowledge is acquired by knowing the subject.
Although it requires teacher for efficient administration, Chittick argues that the authority of the teachers may not be wholly depended on in the light of verification and existence. Therefore, this mode of knowledge resides in the mind and heart of the person and it does not rely on the authority once it is mastered (Chittick, 2007).

The book Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul, is an ample evidence of Chiticks command of the materials he has studied in the forty years. Containing clear but freighting prognosis of the modern world, Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul leads to the thinking about the contemporary state of the world from uncommon perspectives and set straight modern theology. All this is rooted in scientism and humanism as they have emerged in the western ideologies since the enlightenment of the Europeans.

Chittick in this books avoids being too Islamic and therefore, uses the book to draw upon a host of traditional outlooks that help in articulating the main idea of the inevitable relationship between science and religion. For instance, the place of religion is presently concerned with the question that humanity has fallen into the path of self-destruction and needs to wake up before it is too late. Accordingly, Chittick postulates that science can play this role more succinctly in helping humanity in this effort.

The author equally argues that Islamic intellectualism has died. Furthermore, he argues that it is hard to understand ancient Islamic texts without the input of science. While the modern intellectuals with faith in most cases treat their intellectualism and faith on separate pedestals, Chittick holds that it is essential to return to the ways of ancient Sufis, who viewed that the knowledge of God, the world and the soul is an extension of the same thing. Accordingly,  Chittick attributed this to nature and said the science and faith are all issues of nature and hence they should articulate each other.

Science and religion are fundamental elements in the life of man. The soul conducts a two way dialogue between the traditions of religion and the church. Chitticks book offers a ground that challenges the two sides of science and religion to rethink about them with regard to nature as made exclusively for the purpose of humanity. For example, if we want an intelligent interaction between science and the soul which appeals greatly to religion, it is important to note that finding inspiration may stop the illusion that God can be conceived. This supports the fundamentalist argument that some kind of cosmos is the exactly standardized spy satellite orbiting Earth.

Chapter by Chapter, Science of Cosmos, Science of Soul, takes on a formidable task of explaining to the scientific audience the concepts of cosmology and how they can be merged in religion to articulate the holistic approach to life. It becomes absurd to think that human beings can extract religious meaning from the behavior of cosmologists. For example, the more the world becomes incomprehensible, the more it seems pointless and therefore, scientists and cosmologists should provide a synthetic approach to the accommodation of faith-based concepts hence allowing the new cosmos to leave the God question open.

Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul is thus the most original and thought provoking contribution to the genuinely Islamic thought in the past half century. The book has the formidable power of a complete re-evaluation of the intellectual Islamic tradition. William Chittick combines Islamic philosophy and Sufism in the west to offer a concise reflection and religion in the light of tradition and reason. As a result, Chittick exploits his studied familiarity with Islamic intellectual tradition to basically offer a striking alternative as in the mode of knowing which can not escape the interior discipline of knowing itself. In a way, the author argues that Islam can return us to Socrates and to our own souls. In this view, Chittick wanted to apply knowledge of traditional religion and his intimate knowledge of the metaphysical and cosmological doctrines to other traditions, especially Islam.

In Science of Cosmos, Science of the soul, Chittick distills a lifetime of reading and translating concepts of Islam as well as Sufism in a very precise way. His arguments cut across the Gordian knot of modern scientism and confusion. The book revives a worldview and holistic philosophy and shows us what modernity has lost in the headlong rush to deification and progress of science. To articulate his thoughts, Chittick begins his masterful piece by crushing all of the false idols such as freedom, science, progress and democracy. These idols are systematically destroyed which pictures the idea of trying to see God as incompatible with pseudo absolutes. In essence, if God and the idols in the modern world are incompatible, then there is definitely one way to go.

In lieu to this book, Chittick sought to propose that most of the social as well as moral ills that affect the modern society have everything to do with our perception of the world. For example, in making God different from the world, it is seemingly possible that we have robbed the world of its sacred character and thus, we set up others besides god. In essence, the doctrine of Wahdat Al-Wujud is pointed out by Chittick as not acceptable by the mainstream theologians. Chittick explains further how this is the case. He says that whenever humanity turns, there is the face of God. Therefore, it is arguable that cosmology in this book has the overreaching power to transform the societies only if it is adopted correctly. Although this proves elusive, it is imperative to borrow the sentiments of Socrates when he said that if you cannot live in the ideal city, you can equally make it live in your own heart.

Throughout the Science of Cosmos, the Science of the Soul, the arguments of Chittick resonate with the belief of a transcendent being that is depicted so wonderfully in the texts of Islam. For example, he argues in the book that everything must be studied with a strong attachment and reverence to God of all the worlds in which cosmology belong. This book in itself is based on a series of lectures given by Chittick to varied audiences and this explains why his style of writing is lucid and clear. It is evidenced that he does not rely heavily on the top metaphorical manner of speaking which is often the hallmark of several boos of this nature. Science of Cosmos and Science of the Soul is characterized with non metaphorical discourse thus it explicitly communicates its message.

In a nutshell, Science of the Cosmos and Science of the Soul is a book that represents vivid discussions of spiritual attainment in the face of scientific revolution and advancement. The foregoing discussion succinctly captures that the debates embedded in the book center directly on issues such as confidence, hope, trust and detachment. This book is indeed a valuable contribution to our understanding of the Islamic traditions because the merits of it are far much remarkable. Chittick has demonstrated a mastery of historical materials in ancient Islamic tradition as well as history and to great lengths his book is an ideal guide to those who appear to be lost among Islamic philosophical texts. I still recommend it for anybody interested in clearly understanding the historical perspectives of the various thoughts developed in the science of the cosmos and science of the soul.

Origin and Development
In the book The Encyclopaedia of Religion, Gnoli has contributed a significant amount of information that defined and described the religion, Zoroastrianism. Zoroastrianism (Mazdaism) was founded by Zarathustra (Zoroaster) in Iran around 1000 BCE, before Islam became the prevalent religion in the country. It was said that Zoroastrianism came about due to a disjointed society wherein tribes held different views and perspectives in politics, social and cultural life.

Despite the early introduction of Zoroastrianism, the religion has survived the years because it has continually evolved from a traditionalist setting. The religion was able to adapt to the changes in society as it was passed down from one generation and culture to another. Gnoli mentioned that Zoroastrianism became popular not only in Iran but in other communities and countries as well such as the Mongol Empire, Pakistan, India, etc. The influence of the cultures in many countries in which Zoroastrianism was practiced is inevitable, and the differences between cultures mean that influences on the religion also differ.

Due to the continued transformation of Zoroastrianism and passing on different communities and cultures, scholars had anticipated changes or inconsistencies in religious beliefs and practices. In addition, the link between Zoroastrianism and other religions as it was introduced to different places influence the changes in the religion. In order to standardize the religious beliefs and practices in Zoroastrianism, scholars have focused on obtaining significant amount of information from sacred texts as references. Several texts have been discovered but most of the transcripts are incomplete and the number of texts that exist are too many to capture an inclusive narrative about Zoroastrianism.

The existence of Zoroastrian sacred texts may be attributed to the exchange of beliefs, practices, and culture between two different groups of people who observe the doctrines of the religion. Iran and India are now considered as the primary roots of Zoroastrianism. The two cultures exchanged ideas and perspectives about religion, and during the exchange, several sacred texts were written in order to represent the basic foundations of Zoroastrianism, as developed by followers from the primary origin of the religion.

Characteristics
Zoroastrianism preaches monotheism and is based on the solid foundations of dualism. Although in plain sight, monotheism and dualism may seem contradictory, the two concepts are complementary to each other in order to establish a strong foundation for Zoroastrianism. Monotheism stresses that there is only one God, Ahura Mazda who created everything, while dualism represents the extreme or the opposing objectives, concepts, viewpoints, and so on. Dualism is responsible for the belief that the presence of good verifies the presence of evil, happiness or joy versus suffering, and so on.

Although Zoroastrianism primarily endorses monotheism, polytheistic perspectives are applied in order to emphasize the teachings of the religion. For instance, the polytheistic side of Zoroastrianism supports dualism, as several other minor gods represent some concepts that are dualistic in nature. For instance, the daivas or gods, such as Angra Mainyu and Spenta Mainyu, are represented in sacred Zoroastrian texts as evil gods because they made bad decisions that have turned them into wickedness. The representation of dualism within the context of polytheism is parallel to the predicament of an individual in making choices or decisions. In every decision, individuals have to deal with determining which choice is better from two opposites.

Zoroastrianism is also ritualistic in nature. Many practices in the religion involved young tribal warriors who were expected to participate in several rituals including initiation rites (Naojot), animal sacrifices, partaking in food that contained hallucinogens during rituals, and so on. The rituals developed through Zoroastrianism required that followers abide by the rituals. Apart from the practices already mentioned by you, the ritualistic nature of Zoroastrianism is also represented by the number of holidays that the people should celebrate.

One important concept inherent in Zoroastrianism is cosmogony, which is discussed in various sacred texts of the religion. According to Zoroastrian sacred texts, the origin and evolution of the world occurred first during the creation (Bundahishn), and then through the unity between two polar entities (Gumezishn), and the separation of the entities (Wizarishn).

During the Bundahishn, the earth came to be as the Creator, Ahura Mazda, made the elements of nature one by one, such as plants and vegetation, the animals, humans, etc. Furthermore, during the creation of the cosmos, the events that happened within this period were marked by the involvement of individuals who were fervent followers of Zoroastrianism  Gayamaretan and Saoshyant - including Zarathustra. The three individuals are the ones who represent the beginning, middle, and the end.

The Spread and Development of Zoroastrianism
The many differences between the contemporary and conventional practices in Zoroastrianism was diminished through historical development. However, although some of the traditional practices and rituals of Zoroastrianism were neglected or forgotten by contemporary followers (for instance animal sacrifices were considered taboo for some Zoroastrian followers and the concept of dualism was ignored in contemporary Zoroastrian groups), they made sure that current practices still adhere to the ethical perspectives endorsed by the religions founder, Zarathustra. The retention of old practices and rituals in Zoroastrianism and the continued influence of traditional practices and traditions are the primary reasons why the ancient religion has also survived this year.

Apart from the role of continuous endorsement of traditional beliefs and practices to contemporary Zoroastrianism in order to preserve the religion, the connection between the said religion to other religions is also one of the reasons why Zoroastrianism is still known today. Sometimes, individuals utilize Zoroastrian doctrine in order to read, understand, analyze, and interpret other religions. The traditional practices of Zoroastrianism were also preserved due to the involvement of other religions in the process. Gnoli said that some religious groups conduct research studies about Zoroastrianism and then contribute to the creation of various texts and transcripts that represent the totality of Zoroastrianism as a religion.

Until today, Zoroastrianism is still growing as it continues to evolve and adapt contemporary views and practices, especially in socialization. Zoroastrianism is constantly being changed as it is influenced by other culture and religion. For instance, Zoroastrianism now includes teaching about nationalism and loyalty to ones country.

Other efforts to preserve and continue spreading and developing Zoroastrianism is education. Individuals who show great interest in writing and history and in serving for the Zoroastrian belief are requested to undergo learning and training in order to learn the religion fully. At present time, there are many institutions in India that have been developed in order to mentor individuals who are interested to learn and practice Zoroastrianism.

The Oxford American Collegiate Dictionary (Linberg Ed. 1063) defines postmodernism as a late 20th century style in the arts, architecture, and actions that represents a departure from modernism while modernism is a movement toward modifying traditional beliefs in accordance with modern ideas (Lindberg Ed. 866).  The postmodernist movement is a response to changes in the cultural, economic, educational, religious and social behaviors and values of people all over the globe, seen since 1960s and originating in the West, namely the United States of America.  Of note, however, is the impact of postmodern thinking on the evolution of faith and theology through the following phenomena 1.) A change in the world view, status and influence of the West, 2.) A global questioning and examination of the validity of concepts such as the benefits of economic development and Christian religious tenets and laws as benchmarks for accepted standards of behavior, 3.) The technological revolution and resulting globalism, including advances such as development of the Internet, and 4.) Pluralism, defined as a form of society in which minority groups maintain their independent cultural traditions a political system of power-sharing among political parties and a system of devolution and autonomy for individual bodies (Lindberg Ed. 1048).  In this paper, we will examine these four phenomena and religion through the following 1.) A look at the development of modernism and postmodernism, and 2.) Analysis of manifestations of postmodernism in regions around the globe, including Europe and Latin America.

Modernism  The Origin of It All
According to David Harvey, author of The Condition of Postmodernity An Enquiry into the Origins of Cultural Change, modernism was founded in the Industrial Revolution of 19th century in Europe and America.  During the prior one thousand-plus years, most people performed some form of farm labor, although there were specialized fields like skilled crafts, the church, and mercantilism that employed a smaller percentage of the worlds population.

By the mid-1800s, a new system for the creation and exchange of goods and services emerged.  Based on a stabilized, centralized labor force, this development called mass production transformed Western culture from agrarian to industrialized over the course of a few decades (Harvey 240).  Mass production, the production of large, standardized quantities by an automated mechanical process (Lindberg Ed. 831) changed the political and economic systems of the West.  People flocked from farms and manors to urban areas, seeking employment and opportunities at factories and other businesses that produced mass amounts of good and services.  Capitalism, the modernist political and economic system, emerged, characterized by private, per-profit control of national trade and industry

Modernist economic and scientific leaders generated numerous technologies advances during this period.  These included the automobile, the steam-powered locomotives and ships, the telephone and more.  In fact, Harvey also refers to industrialization as Fordism, named for pioneer automaker Henry Fords use of mass production to create cars and develop the American automobile industry (241).  Harvey also mentions Charles Darwin, creator of the theory of evolution, which suggested that all species, including humans, evolved based on natural selection, a process by which all living things survived only by developing genetic characteristics over successive generations.

The concept of the Gifts of the Holy Spirit underlies Christianity and is an indispensable aspect of the faith.  This paper presents an argument that without the Gifts of the Holy Spirit, the expansion of Christianity would have been difficult, if not impossible. According to Amy Plantinga Pauw,

In the church, the Holy Spirit works within believers by bearing witness with our spirit that we are children of God . . . and joint heirs with Christ (Rom. 816-7). In its prayer, worship, study and mission, the Christian community is guided by the Holy Spirit to share the life of Christ with each other and the world. Through the diversity of the Spirits gifts, the church seeks to embody forms of a Christ-shaped life as varied as the human race itself. The Spirit indwells and empowers the church to be a vanguard, a visible sign of Gods coming reign of reconciliation and communion.  

ChriUtianU believe that Upirituality or Upiritual practiceU, ranging from prayer to fighting for justice, facilitate inculcation of love not only for God but also for one s neighbor and true selfhood-the ideals of Christianity. The concept of  Gifts of the Holy Spirit serves as the foundation of these Christian ideals and the religion. Formation and adoption of the concept, constituting a critical phase in Christianity, marked a significant movement in the development of the Church.

The Gifts of the Holy Spirit symbolize omnipresent, omnipotent God in all His splendor, having unbounded love for His children. The GiftU of the Holy pirit  are described as such because they are given by the Holy pirit. These Gifts are empowered in the believer by God and operate in a Uupernatural way. Further, these Gifts are to be present and in operation in the believer s life on a daily basis, not just during trying times. AU Uuch, they assist believers in sharing the good news and performing the work of the Church.

The growth of Christianity is attributed to a departure from complicated and esoteric approach to law based on the Old Covenant, which emphasized burnt offerings and sacrifices, to a less complex approach to grace and spirituality based on the New Covenant.  Ralph Del Colle explained this transition as follows The Old Covenant made clear announcement of the Father, a less definite one of the Son.  The New Covenant made the Son manifest and gave us a glimpse of the Spirits Godhead. At the present time the Spirit resides among us, giving us a clearer manifestation of himself than before.

Christianity substituted Judaism, discarding the latters concept of a God of wrath. and by giving, in its place, the concept of God whose nature is love. Clifford and Anatolios explained that in the practice of Judaism, impurities were eradicated by the blood of the offering.  Thus was the Sanctuary purged of the sins, which, if not purged, would have provoked Yahwehs wrath and caused his withdrawal from the camp.  Common man often lacked the resources to buy required offerings and was, thus, at a disadvantage against the affluent, who could afford   the richest burnt offerings to God of Judaism and, in return, got greater blessings. Common man could, thus, never dream of pleasing God. In contrast, Jesus offered a religion which was based on love and humanity and was available to all persons willing to accept and repose their trust.

In Christianity, the bestowal of the Gifts of God offers an opportunity for all believers to build a relationship with God and  neighbor, regardless of social position.  To receive the blessings of the Christian God, one need not make rich offerings one must simply give immersed worship to God precisely as our Father and  relate with all people as children of the same Father.  Christians esteem God because He is a loving Father, not because he can manifest His wrath.  The Gifts of the Spirit perfect Christians by endowing them with the virtue of caring for their fellow people.  Additionally, the Gifts enable the believers to perform their duties towards God and neighbor, due to feelings of common bonding and a loving relationship with God.  A true relationship is centered on love, not fear its basis is a love that moves one to respond to Gods desire for peoples well being.

According to the teachings of the apostle Paul, the Gifts are intended to promote the advancement of the church and the edification of the individual.  Miles stated that The apostle Paul teachings found in Romans 1268 Ephesians 411 I Corinthians 12810, 2830 1313 146, 26  elaborated various operations of gifts or charisma of the Spirit, including prophecy, leading, teaching, governing, evangelizing, miracles, healings, tongues, alms giving, helping, serving, doing works of mercy, and administering material goods.  This description further advances the theory that Gods love is demonstrated through the church (i.e., through believers).

After resurrection, Jesus caused the Holy Spirit to be with His people, that is all Christian believers, as a constant reminder that they have not been forgotten and as a reassurance of his benign presence amongst them and to  help, guide, guard, and comfort them until His second coming. The Holy Spirit, which can be present in all Christian believers, serves the needs of the Church and its people.   The New Catholic Encyclopedia explains the Holy Spirit in the following manner

The Old Testament clearly does not envisage Gods spirit as a person . . . Gods spirit is simply Gods power. If it is sometimes represented as being distinct from God, it is because the breath of Yahweh acts exteriorly. . . . The majority of New Testament texts reveal Gods spirit as something, not someone this is especially seen in the parallelism between the spirit and the power of God. Italics added

The nature the Holy Spirit of Catholics can be understood through concept of the Holy Eucharist, in which the elements constituting wine and bread get transformed into the Christs body and Christs blood.  As Bass wrote, this transformation can only occur by means of the MaUU, so therefore the Catholic faith offers the same degree of reverence and adoration that is due God the Almighty.  Because of the significance of the MaUU, it serves as the primary worship ceremony for the Catholic Church and is celebrated all over the world, in exactly the same way, every day of the week.  The concept underlying the Eucharist is that theUe GiftU allow the Catholic to Uhare in the life and nature of God, both now and for eternity. In thiU UenUe, these Gifts are, aU t. ThomaU AquinaU aUUerted, in the fulleUt UenUe  habitU,  from the Latin habituU, Uignifying their indwelling preUence and operation. The CatechiUm underUcoreU thiU point when it asserts,  The moral life of ChriUtianU iU UuUtained by the giftU of the Holy pirit.

To understand the Catholic MaUU and its relation to the Holy Spirit, one must appreciate that the very presence of the Spirit, which the Mass represents, is representative of the belief combined with action, and forms a spiritual technique of Christianity. It requires presence, physical as well as mental, of a participant who must consciously, actively and enthusiastically take part in all aspects of the celebrations, be it praying, singing or kneeling in reverence. That Catholics attach great importance to the Mass, can be understood from the fact that a casual physical attendance in the Mass is not considered sufficient. It is in the Mass that by guiding the members of his congregation through a series of interactions, a priest establishes intimate  communication with them.

Another key to understanding the MaUU and why it is, as DeMello explains,  so critical to Catholic worship that it is referred to as the sacred rite, or the formal, official worship service of Catholicism,  is recognizing that it is more than simply a reenactment of the Last Supper. The Mass does not merely celebrate the past but also unites the past, present, and future whereas the past is recalled by reciting the words of Jesus, This is my body, this is my blood, the present is blessed by the bestowal of graces. The MaUU comprises the Liturgy of the Word of God and the Liturgy of the Eucharist. Every prayer or religious ceremony commences with congregants making the sign of cross when instructed by the priest, and concludes in the same manner. The priest customarily greets the congregants before starting the Penitential Rite during the Liturgy of Wood. As Amy Plantinga Pauw explains, the vital characteristic is one of offering

The Spirit is the one who indwells the church and is given through the churchs means of grace. Since Schleiermacher it has been common to think of the Holy Spirit simply as the communal spirit of the Christian church. On the other hand, the Spirit has always been a mysterious and free presence that blows where it wills, transcending church structures and even the boundaries of human society to renew the whole creation.

In accordance with Pau, Monika K. Hellwig argues, The Holy Spirit is the Spirit of Jesus because the Holy Spirit of God, which is the Spirit of Jesus, is working powerfully in his followers . . . and drawing human freedom to its fulfillment in the willing response to the rule of God.  However, Bernhard Lohse disagrees with this argument

The New Testament affirmations about the Holy Spirit are not so clear and univocal as those about Jesus Christ. It was known that the Spirit had spoken through the prophets and that he had descended at the baptism of Jesus in order to equip him for his work. The Johannine affirmations about the Spirit are especially far-reaching. For the period after his departure Jesus promises his people the Paraclete (NEB, Advocate xsv, Counselor), who is purposely called the Spirit of truth (John 1417), or the Holy Spirit (John 1426). Since it is asserted of the Spirit that he is another Paraclete (John 1416), it could be supposed that the Spirit is here conceived to be another person distinct from Jesus Christ. But this is hardly the case. The meaning, rather, is that in the Spirit Jesus himself comes to his disciples as the Paraclete.

In 1 Corinthians 124-13, one comes to know that though the Gifts of the Holy Spirit are primarily intended for effective spiritual guidance, they include all human endeavors conducive to smooth functioning of the Church and its growth. The Holy Spirit can manifest itself in countless ways such as exceptional wisdom and knowledge or ability to work miracles and prophesize. The believers may acquire healing powers or abilities to speak and understand different languages or even to discern spirits. The promotion and expansion of the Church is central to the concept.

Paul, particularly in his letters to the Romans and the Corinthians, sheds additional light on how the Holy Ghost functions ideally in human lives. To the Corinthians Paul makes it clear that the gift of the Holy Ghost was bequeathed to all Now there are varieties of gifts, but the same Spirit and there are varieties of service, but the same Lord and there are varieties of working, but it is the same God who inspires them all in every one. To each is given the manifestation of the Spirit for the common good (1 Corinthians 12.4-7).

There were handful of believers in the early Christian era and very few were multi lingual. Initially, Christian preachings attracted only underpriviledged sections of the society, including those shunned by Judaism or other pagan religions. Gifts of the Holy Spirit are believed to be behind the spread of Christianity to distant regions and nations. These Gifts enabled the first missionaries to travel abroad, successfully communicate with foreigners and win them over to the fold of Christianity. The Gifts of the Holy Spirit made the task of spreading Christianity to different nations with different native languages comparatively easier. Without these Gifts, the task would have been extremely difficult, if not impossible.

Difficulty with communication was not the only major hurdle that Gifts of the Holy Spirit help surmount. Referring to the Holy Spirit, Hilmar M. Pabel writes, This is the Spirit who drives out the evil from Christian hearts, the Spirit by whom Christ strengthens his bride and her pastors, the Spirit through whom Christ has brought so many nations into the one body of the church, which is joined to Christ its head through the same Spirit.  Although Pelagius taught that moral perfection is attainable in this life without the assistance of divine grace through human free will,

Augustine of Hippo contradicted this by saying that perfection was impossible without grace because we are born sinners with a sinful heart and will. . . . Augustine presents his theory of grace and predestination in uncompromising terms. Why, from among the human Massa damnations, does God call and justify some people and not others Certainly not because of their merits.

One Corinthians 124-13 teaches that as the Holy Spirit makes no distinction among believers, Christianity is all-inclusive, embracing all believers regardless of class or position

And it shall come to pass afterward, that I will pour out my spirit on all flesh your sons and your daughters shall prophesy, your old men shall dream dreams, and your young men shall see visions. Even upon the menservants and maidservants in those days, I will pour out my spirit. (Joel 2.28-29)

As such, all peopleJews and Greeks, slaves, and free mencould become part of the one body of Christ during the early Christian era. This philosophy was crucial to the expansion of the Church.  

In The Spirit of Life A Universal Affirmation, Moltmann extends this comprehension of the Gifts to encompass even social status, insisting that those in particular social positions, whether women, the poor, or ethnic minorities, provide unique wisdom and skills that can be mobilized by the Spirit. This understanding of the spiritual Gifts allows a freedom to exercise them outside of mainstream thought and reach out in the highways and byways to empower everyone, regardless of social standing. Gaining understanding of this expanded conception of the Gifts is very important in understanding why Christ selected apostles not characterized by high social standing. Indeed, it is very important for comprehending Christians as a whole, for, according to Papel, Christians are a spiritual people, for they imitate Christ, are taught by the Holy Spirit, and depend entirely on heaven. They cast aside the helps of this world and possess a wealth, wisdom, nobility, power, and happiness with which this world is unfamiliar.

The Holy Spirit helps believers in learning and assimilating the spiritual Gifts and causes them to grow in communion with God. Such instruction includes the learning of the Gift of Wisdom, which endows one with the ability to judge and order all things in accordance with divine norms and with a commonality that flows from loving union with God.  This Gift, although primarily bestowed to reveal the will of God so that all Christians can poUUeUs the utmost knowledge of God, also allows for growth of practical wisdom, as the Gift of Wisdom supernaturally discloses the mind, purpose, and way of God within a specific context .

The Gifts of the Holy Spirit gifts are essential for salvation for, according to Margaret M. Turek
The Holy Spirit is love in person inasmuch as he is the mutual love that unites the Father and the Son. The Holy Spirit does not participate in the generation of the Son he is derived from this generation by reason of the fact that the Fathers love for his Son is reciprocated in a unifying love that forms a third divine person.

This is the indispensible gift that all spirituality hinges on and that is love for one another. This transcends social and economic status this is why the apostle Paul could say 25 that there should be no division in the body, but that its parts should have equal concern for each other. 26 If one part suffers, every part suffers with it if one part is honored, every part rejoices with it. 1 Corinthians 1221-26 NIV

When we hold in low esteem those whom society fails to appreciate, in effect failing to grasp that everyone has a gift to offer, we lessen the value of the Gifts that God has to offer. Indeed, we fail to recognize that God works in every aspect of society, ministering His Gifts and extending His love to all who will receive it. IrenaeuU, biUhop of LyonU, affirmed that because  the glory of God iU humanity fully alive, ChriUtianU understand that connecting their liveU to the piritU activity embodying GodU love in the world will culminate in the Kingdom of God, in which all creatureU embody the purpoUeU of God and their deepeUt yearningU.
If we believe, aU Thomas Merton inUiUtU,  We give glory to God by living into God s purpose for creation,  we can understand Erik Erikson s assertion that  adolescence has its own virtue, and its own natural energy and teloU apart from its trajectory toward adulthood.  Awakened and empowered through spiritual practices, young people can plan and organize around the Holy Spirit s goal of universal love, leading to glorification of God and energizing of human life.

Motivation for carrying out the will of God does not emanate from any command, nor from fear of negative consequences of disobeying the command, but from heart felt love for God and all human beings. The powerful Gifts of God are bestowed on those who are received in the Church. They make unity compulsory among believers and stress the need for establishing churches throughout the length and breadth of the globe. Monika K. Hellwig describes such unity as a communion of saints

This whole vision of interdependence has been named in Christian tradition by the term communion of saints. The term as we have it in the ancient creeds was probably originally intended to denote the communion or sharing of the holy things, that is, the mysteries of the followers of Jesus, the sacramental celebrations and the Scriptures and teachings, but in the course of time it has come to be understood rather as a communion or sharing among the holy people, that is, among all those past and present who have entered into the life of the Spirit by baptism into the community of Jesus.

Rejecting Christianity is interpreted by the Church as a decision to remain away from God, the giver of salvation to all. The Holy Spirit gives Gifts to achieve the goals of the Church and to ensure its smooth functioning and to galvanize believers to work incessantly for Church and all mankind. Administration of communion during prayers bears ample testimony to the noble purpose, All powerful God, Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, by water and the Holy Spirit you freed your sons and daughters from sin and gave them new life. Send your Holy Spirit upon them to be their helper and guide.17

The Gifts of the Holy Spirit provide believers with instantaneous and explicit evidence that Christianity is the religion of choice and that God is almighty, forgiving, and loving.  Furthermore, the Gifts furnish believers with the ability to spread Christian values around the world, converting more people to the faith. Ralph Del Colle states

At the very least, both ancient and contemporary witnesses have wrestled with either the divinity or personhood of the Holy Spirit. While the Pneumatomachi or enemies of the Holy Spirit are no longer the concern of present-day theologians as they were for Athanasius, Basil of Caesarea, and Gregory of Nazianzenwho today would deny the divinity of the Spiritthe conception of the Spirits personhood certainly is.18

This quote makes it clear that the Gifts of the Holy Spirit have been responsible for extraordinary spread of Christianity through missionaries and instilled immense courage and strength in them and have made them embrace martyrdom. The Holy Gifts provide great spiritual insights into the growth of Christianity and the evolution of its adherents and helped them make spirituality a part of their being and a way of life. The Christian quest for justice and love of God led to establishment of churches. The Gifts of the Holy Spirit have facilitated realization of true self and promoted neighborly love.

In 1999, he received the Templeton Religion and Science Award and later became the first Muslim and non-westerner to deliver the Gifford Lecturers. In addition, he was honored with the Honorary Doctor by the Uppsala University, Sweden in 1977 and later won the King Faisal Foundation award which was later withdrawn after the sponsors realized that he was a Shia. He has presently written more than fifty books and over five hundred articles some that have been published in Studies in Comparative Religion journal. He has handled different topics that include Islamic philosophy, Sufism, Islamic science, traditional metaphysics, religion and environment (Haught, 2001). The person in question is none other than a Muslim scholar and philosopher, Seyyes Hossein Nasr.

Bibliography
Professor Seyyed Hossein Nasr was born on 7th April 1933 in Tehran and attended schools in his hometown. The schools offered Persian curriculum concentrating much in Persian and Islamic subjects though Nasr got French tutorial as well. When he was twelve years old, he moved from Iran to the United States of America where he enrolled in Peddie School in Hightstown. He showed his academic excellence when he graduated at the top of his class and won the Wyclifte Award , the highest honor in that school for being the most exceptional all round student. It is during his four years in this school that he learned English language as well as American history, Christianity, Western culture and sciences. He became the first Iranian undergraduate to enroll at M.I.T where he began studying Physics. He was motivated to study physics by the urge of gaining knowledge on physical reality. He later however felt that physics did not quench his thirst to know the Truth though he still stuck to his studies until he graduated with honors (NASR Foundation, 2009).

When he graduated from MIT, Seyyed Hossen Nasr enrolled in graduate course in geophysics and geology at Harvard University. He got a Masters degree in geology and geophysics and immediately pursued a PhD degree in history of science and learning at the same University. When at the Harvard, he recommenced studying classical Arabic as well as philosophical Arabic. He moved to different parts of Europe while at Harvard, a move that enabled him to have contacts with great intellectuals, philosophers and traditional writers. He graduated with a Ph.D. when he was only twenty five from Harvard University just before he finished writing his first book entitled Science and Civilization in Islam. He immediately returned to his motherland, Iran where he became an associate professor at the Tehran University and after five years became a full professor, the first youngest in the history of the university at that time. It is at this point in time that he initiated teaching philosophy based on Islamic history and perspective in addition to encouraging the students to learn other intellectual traditions and philosophies from their own traditions point of view (NASR Foundation, 2009).

He rose to the position of the Dean of faulty and then the Academic vice Chancellor in Tehran University from the period between 1968 and 1972, the positions he used well in making strong programs in philosophy and other humanities. He was made the President of Aryamehr University, which was a leading technical and scientific university in the country.  He initiated different programs in Iran in addition to teaching students who later become world renowned scholars. In 1979, he returned to the United States of America during the Islamic revolution in his country. He took up his lecturing job in University of Edinburgh, then Temple University and currently he is a professor at George Washington University where he teaches Islamic studies. He has been very instrumental in establishment and expansion of Iranian and Islamic studies in universities such as University of Utah, Princeton as well as the University of Southern California (NASR Foundation, 2009).

Seyyeds major ideas drawn from his works
Professor Seyyed Hossein Nasr has written and given lectures in different fields of Islamic Sufism, esoterism, metaphysics and philosophy of science. He has written and spoken on the viewpoints and doctrines of philosophy (perennial) on subjects like religion, spirituality, philosophy, art, music, science, architecture, literature, natural environment and civilization dialogue. From these works, different ideas can be derived.  
Seyyed Hossein Nasr on Islam, science and technology

Contemporary science and technology started impacting the Islamic world approximately two centuries ago and from that time, the subject has become an increasing challenge to Muslim life with Muslims debating on how best they should respond to Western creations. The debate has brought about several discrete philosophical positions as pertains to Islam, science and technology. Due to the fact that modern science and technology has continued to perversely impact the traditional Muslim thought and life, the responses of the Muslims have addressed and covered different issues that relate to their insinuations from every direction.
Seyyed Hossein Nasr is one of the well known scholars to respond to these issues. His philosophical position which he together with his school (intellectual) has founded or spoken is known both in the West and in the word of Islam. Through his many writings and lectures for the last five decades, he has offered the most complete academic response to science and technology which no other Muslim has ever provided in the debate over the subject. His critique of contemporary science and technology can be termed as being profound and that is based on scholarship that is sound (Bakar, 2007).

Professor Seyyed Hossein Nasr vivid philosophical point of argument can be summarized in three statements. One, contemporary science is a science of nature and is not the only valid science of the natural order it is only valid within the context of its supposition of the nature of thinking and known objects. Secondly, the civilization of Islam will destroy itself if it simply imitates Western science and technology this is because modern science directly challenges the Islamic worldview. Thirdly, contemporary science and technology cannot be described as being value free or neutral as it enforces the value system and worldview on humanity (Bakar, 2007).

Nasri argues that Muslims must be ready to tackle the contemporary science and technology having a sense of moral and intellectual integrity and responsibility based on the intellectual Islamic tradition. He urges Muslims not to avoid modern sciences but instead master them. He however asks them to create an Islamic critique that is positive of modern science based on the intellectual tradition of Islam. He states that it should be the sacred duty of all Muslim intellectuals, scholars as well as the scientists to come up with a modern Islamic science that is authentic. Nasr has consistently critiqued the contemporary science and technology writing several dimensions about what he believes to be destructive and dehumanizing aspects of modern science and technology (Bakar, 2007). Though numerous Muslims agree with Nasris view, there are those who have criticized his substitute for contemporary science and technology terming it as backwards and impractical in the implementation especially in the current world.

Islam and the Violence Question
Professor Seyyed Hossein Nasr has contributed to this topic largely. He has regularly stated that despite the fact that there have been conflicts and violence in different regions of the world that involves religions, Islam has often been associated with violence by the Western World. The ottoman domination, the Islam conquest of Spain and some other instances often give a historical impression that Islam is associated with power and force. In addition, he mentions the Middle East conflicts and particularly some groups that have tried to solve problems which have been created by causes and conditions Muslims cannot control as some of the facts that have strengthened the idea by the West that Islam is often related to violence. He however states that for one to understand the Islam nature as well as the truth about the allegation made that Islam supports violence it is significant to realize that the term Islam in fact means peace.  He argues that the West should be concerned about the Islam religion, its ideas and principles and not specific events that have taken place historically (Nasr, n.d.).

He states that Islam is not totally opposed to the use of force though it usually tries to control it according to the holy law (al sharia). Nasr adds that the aim of Islam is to come up with equilibrium wherever there is tension between different forces. It is this equilibrium that is referred to as justice. However, he argues that force should not be used in a manner that it will bring disorder and disequilibrium which would in turn result into injustice. The professor claims that any use of force should have the guidance of the holy law with the objective of bringing back an equilibrium and hence justice (Nasri, n.d). He defends Islam claiming that even during the war, force should not be exerted against women, children and the civilian but only against the forces in the field. He concludes by stating that Islam is against any form of violence, to mean any use of force that is unjust and that violates the rights of others, regardless of the religious affiliation (Nasr, n.d).

Seyyed Nasr on Islamic Christian dialogue
Professor Seyyed Nasr has been part of the dialogues that have taken place between the Muslims and other religions and mainly Christianity. He has written articles on this issue trying to find solution on how to overcome the obstacles and problems that hinder such a significant move. He admits that Christian-Islamic dialogue has grown with time with round table discussions, conferences, meetings as well as written and oral exchanges being held in nearly every part of the globe. He adds that discussions of theological and scholarly nature have been debated (Nasr, 1998).

He admits that through these dialogues, many issues have been solved though there are those that still remain unresolved up to now. Nasr maintains that Islam is easier to accept that Christianity is a true message from God than the Christians would do. The main area of contention between the two religions is on whether Islamic revelations are true (on the Christianity side) and the issue of trinity and the divineness of Jesus (on the Islam side). He insists that despite the differences that would arise in the attempt to interpret the revelations, the best thing that one can do is to promote respect between each others religious group, with the view that none of the religion is superior to the other. In his article, he quotes a verse in Quran And argue not with the People of the Scripture (including Christians) unless it be in a mostly kindly manner, save with such of them as do wrong and say We believe in that which hath been revealed unto us and revealed unto you our God and your God is One, and unto Him we surrender (Nasri 1998). The professor concludes that as the world continue to experience pervasive crises which include environmental destruction and life desecration caused by technological advancement, Christians as well as the Muslims will realize that in fact they have more in common than their differences (Nasr 1998).

Philosophy and Religion
Professor Seyyed Hossein Nasri has been and is a proponent of the traditional philosophy. This is the philosophy which reserves a higher place for the holy scriptures of the world religious traditions. He critiques the Western philosophy that separates itself from the scriptures. He adds that the Western philosophy in the middle ages had great links with the scriptures but not so with the modern western philosophy. Nasr claims that Islamic philosophy has always paid great attention to scriptures. He makes it clear that Islamic philosophy has not just founded itself on the scriptures otherwise it would become theology. He mentions great Islamic philosophers such as Ibn Sina and Mullar Sadra who wrote annotations upon the Quran. Sadir explains that traditional philosophers have analyzed the sacred scripture on its symbolic level and not merely on the perennial level. He adds that Islamic philosophers and Sufis have made commentaries on the Quran (Norton 2004).

Religion and Ecology
Professor Seyyed Hossein Nasr has made a statement that religion and ecology are inseparable. He blames the Western canon for separating science from the sacred and religion from the secular (Hope  Young, 1989).  He states that in the Islamic nations, religion is a very strong force as compared to non Islamic states. Political leadership in an Islamic society (true) ought to act in conformity to the shariah as created by the experts of law. Whenever these experts of the law declare that polluting industries or some developments are violating the principles of Islam, political leadership should comply with the advice and deal with the transgressors. He however admits that this is not very common as the world has been dominated economically by the West and thus Islam is forced depend both politically and economically on the West meaning that it is the west that sets the agenda. He adds that the problem lies with the renaissance humanism that brought about a world which is centered not on the Creator but on man. He adds that the western science is illegitimate because scientists do not see the requirement to integrate with a higher knowledge. Nasr strongly speaks against evolution theory which speaks against divine creation (Hope  Young, 1989).

Reflections on Seyyed Hossein Nasr
Nasr has dealt with different Islamic fields such as Sufism, esoterism, metaphysics and philosophy of science. Most Of what he has written and spoken has been based on viewpoints and traditional philosophy. One of the most profound aspects of professor Nasr is that he has maintained his Islamic faith despite traveling in both Muslim and non Muslim regions. He has been able to explain science, ecology, philosophy, violence and other subjects from Islamic viewpoint.

Addressing the topic of science and technology, Nasri has made it clear that Western Science has obstinately affected Islam in one way or another. He however advises that Muslims should tackle modern science and technology, not avoiding it but mastering it. Regarding the relationship between religion and ecology, he states that both are inseparable and blames the Western dogma for the attempt to separate the two. He shows great support for the perennial philosophy that acknowledges the scriptures of global religious traditions. He throws the blame to the Western philosophy that has often tried to disconnect philosophy from the sacred scriptures.
 
He supports ChristianMuslim dialogue, stating that despite their differences in doctrines, they need each other especially during the global crises currently being experienced in the world. Regarding violence, he makes it clear that Islam only supports the use of force that would bring justice in the world and that which is prescribed in the Shariah. Any other type of violence is not in accordance to the Islamic teachings.

In conclusion, it is evident that Seyyed Hossein Nasr is a great Muslim philosopher and a scholar who has devoted his life in promoting what he believes in and as a result influenced both Islamic and non Islamic world in various fields.

Theology of mission has been described as the study which is concerned with basic thoughts and principles that are underlying which determines the methods, the motives, the goals and the strategies of the Christian world mission. This is usually from a Christian faith standpoint. This Christian world mission is usually Gods mission and Gods mission as seen in the bible is to reach out to the whole world with love so that the world may get to know and serve Him. There are many texts in the bible that are related to mission. These run from Genesis to Revelation. Theology of missions is the central theme of the bible and shows the nature of God which all Christians are supposed to emulate.

There are many bible verses and passages that are related to missions. These can be found in both the New Testament and in the old testaments. However, many Christians do not relate them to mission and only know of the ones that directly talk of missions. Understanding the various bible verses and passages in the bible that directly or indirectly are related to missions would give a clear understanding of the high priority God places on missions. In fact it would be correct to say that the whole bible has a central theme of missions.

There are several texts in the Old Testament and new testaments that are related to mission. In fact, the theme of mission begins in the first verse of the Old Testament section of the bible i.e. in Genesis 11. Here, Yahweh is referred to as the God of the universe as a whole.  From this point in the bible the rest of the whole bible is centered on sin of human kind with God promising to send a savior. In Genesis 123, God told Abraham that the people of the whole world would be blessed through him. This was Gods mission and he repeated this to both Isaac and Jacob. This is shown in Genesis 1818, Genesis 2217-18, Genesis 2624 and Genesis 2812-14. God told Moses at Mt. Sinai to tell people that even if the whole world was Gods, the Israelites would become a kingdom of priests for God. This is shown in Exodus chapter 19 verses 5-6. This means that Israel as a nation was chosen by God to be his agents in his efforts of reconciling the sinful humanity with Him. In Isaiah chapter 49 and verses 6 shows that God wanted the people He had chosen to be a light to the world. Joshua chapter 4 verses 24 says that God allowed the Israelites to cross the river of Jordan so that people in the whole world would know of his great works. Solomon while dedicating the temple that he had built in Jerusalem said that the temple had been built so that all the people of the world would know of Gods name. This is seen in 1 Kings Chapter 8 verse 43. In the prophetic books of the bible, the prophets confirms that God was focused on the whole world. A good example is seen in the book of Isaiah chapter 45 verses 44 where God says that all the ends of the earth should turn to him for salvation. Another text in the Old Testament is the whole book of Jonah which shows Gods desire and call for people to join him in his love for the nations.

In the New Testament, the most commonly known scripture that relates to mission is Matthew 2819-20 which is also commonly referred to as the great commission.  The Lords Prayer is another well known text which shows mission. The prayer talks of Gods kingdom coming down to the earth and his will being done on earth same way as in heaven. Mathew chapter 24 verses 14 says that before the end comes, the gospel of Gods kingdom will have been preached in the whole world. In Luke chapter 10 verse 2 Jesus talks of the harvest being plentiful compared to the laborers. In the book of John chapter 17 verses 23 Jesus talks of his desire to have the world know that it was God who had sent him and that the reason for his sending him was the great love He felt for mankind. In the book of revelations chapter 21 verses 23 and 24 John says that all the nations will go before the Lord and worship Him. In the book of Mark chapter 13 verse 10 talks of Gods gospel being preached to all the nations. In the book of John chapter 12 and verse 32 Jesus says that when He will be lifted from the world He will draw people to Himself.

Christian mission comes from Gods initiative which was in line with Gods purposes of healing and restoring the creation. The word mission means sending. It forms the central theme of the whole bible and serves to describe what the purpose of God was in the history of humankind. God has a reconciliatory nature. To reconcile with the sinful humankind, God sent prophets and finally his only son Jesus Christ. Throughout the bible God is shown as a sender. He sends His laws to the Israelites at Mt. Sinai, He sends prophets to people, and Jesus sends his disciples into the world. All this sending Shows Gods attempt to reconcile with humankind due to the great love He felt for them. Gods desire is that we may share in his passion for reaching out to the world and converting all the people into his servants. Christians who have accepted Gods call have a role to play in Gods mission. Another nature of God that is related to mission is his great love for the mankind. God had every reason to abandon mankind after they sinned in the garden of Eden but he did not. Instead, throughout the bible he is seen making efforts to reconcile with the mankind. This is also seen by His sending of His only son Jesus Christ to come and reconcile Him with his people. This Gods nature of love can also be linked with His selfless nature. That is why God in the bible is depicted as going to any length to reconcile with the mankind.

Theology as an aspect of Christianity has been described as a systematic study of Gods nature and His relationship with the world and humanity. It is concerned with the study of Gods nature and truth about Christian religion. Mission theology is related to other aspects of theology in that mission theology is concerned with the study of how God relates with humankind. It shows how God loves the world so much that He is willing to give mankind the privilege of participating in his mission of saving the world. Mission theology is all about the study of Gods nature and trying to relate it to his purpose for creating mankind. It is a form of applied theology which is involved with reflections about God. Theology of mission is also concerned with all the other traditional aspects of systemic theology but the way it deals with it differs. It is committed to remain faithful to the intentions of God. It is also committed to the purposes and perspectives of God. The mission of theology is fundamentally concerned with how the bible is related to the bibles mission. It tries to the bible to give the foundational motivations for Gods mission in addition to allowing it to shape, evaluate, guide, question, and question the enterprise of mission.  

Motif is usually described as an element or pattern that is recurring and which acts to reinforce the central guiding concern of an issue. It is synonymous to theme. The key themes of the theology of mission includes understanding Gods mission, understanding Gods use of humans as his instruments in mission, understanding Gods purposes and intentions as well as understanding how God works through His people in His world. These themes are seen running throughout the whole bible from Genesis to Revelations. These themes are central to the theology of missions and they intertwine with each other. God uses human beings to carry out his missions. This is seen by his act of sending people to deliver his messages throughout the bible.

The theology of mission is related to church leaders, missionaries and lay persons who are not engaged in ministry as full-timers. Mission is reacted to and perceived differently by lay people, church leaders and missionaries. The differences are seen in their reactions to suffering, worship and prayer. Mission theology cannot be separated from theology and God cannot be separated from mission theology. Similarly, how these groups of Christians react to prayer, worship and suffering is part of mission theology. Piper says that worship is better compared to mission and that mission only exists due to lack of worship. If all the nations were worshiping God, there would be no need for God to send people to humankind and thus there would be no need for missionaries. Mission has been said to be how the church relates to the world. And mission does not belong to the missionaries, lay people or church leaders as majority of Christians believe it belongs to God. These participants in Gods mission have been accorded the privilege of participating. An important point to note is that the participation of these people in mission is not optional. Failure to participate in missions makes them to cease being part of Christs church. Whatever activities these people engage in should all be focused on mission.

From the above discussion it is clear that mission is inseparable from theology. It forms the practical part of theology since it deals with the study of how the nature of God is related to mankind. It also deals with the mission of God which ultimately becomes the mission of mankind when they get saved. All the people who are in any way involves in church activities are participating in Gods mission.

Comparing Catholicism and the Mormon Religion

Contrasts in Christianity
The Catholic and Mormon (LDS) Churches draw from similar sources to construct the frameworks of their beliefs. Both share in the Holiness of Jesus Christ and the tradition of the Christian Bible. At the same time there are fundamental differences that separate the two religions.

In addition to the Bible, Mormonism draws from more modern sources. These sources make it unique as a religion. The LDS sees itself as a Christian Church. The Roman Catholic Church sees the LDS as a heretical entity.  Both Churches stirred controversy from their earliest days. Both Churches emerged from early struggles into tremendous growth. They are far from being the same Church however. Brief introductions of each faith will precede a more in-depth comparison of the two religions.

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (LDS)
The LDS church, commonly referred to as the Mormon Church, has uniquely American roots but draws upon theology constructed many centuries before. The mid-19th century in America featured two eras of religious revivals called Great Awakenings.  Protestant preachers criss-crossed the country holding fervent revival services designed excite and motivate crowds.

Simultaneously, millions of immigrants were coming to the United States. A large percentage of them were Catholic. America was becoming more religious. It was also a time when a new religion could be launched. Over the history of man, many people have claimed to be prophets. In America of the 19th century prophetic declarations were usually scorned, particularly by the preeminent religious leaders of the day. Into this dichotomy of religious freedom and intolerance of radical dissent, one man claimed himself as a prophet and was able to build a major religion from scratch.

Joseph Smith, Jr. formed the Mormon faith in the early 1800s after claiming to have received a series of visions from God. Smith wrote nearly all of the early Church doctrine prior to his death in the 1840s. His ministry began in his hometown of Palmyra, New York with a small but dedicated group of followers.

Catholic and Protestant leaders saw Smith as a heretic, not a prophet. Resistance against his group was often violent. The group began moving west to escape persecution. At various stages the group was attacked, jailed or forced to move on. Smith himself was jailed and subsequently killed. Brigham Young would guide the group through the rest of the journey, eventually ending in what is now Utah. The LDS quickly became a dominant force in the unsettled territory. In the late 1800s it petitioned the Federal government for Utah statehood.

Mormonism is proposed as the true progression of Christianity into the modern age. Critics argue that Mormonism is a heresy piggybacking on Christianity to give it an air of legitimacy. Whatever the case millions of followers have joined the still growing LDS Church. For all the elements the LDS has in common with the Roman Catholic Church it is the differences that define the two religions. Some differences are plainly obvious while others are more subtle in nature. A brief discussion of Roman Catholic history will set the stage for a comparison between specific beliefs and practices.

Roots of Roman Catholicism
Roman Catholicism began to form within a few decades of the crucifixion of Jesus Christ. Jesus is seen as the fulfillment of the Jewish scriptures that comprise the Old Testament of the Christian Bible. Much of the Old Testament was written by prophets.

Before his death Jesus charged his disciples with the task of establishing a Church and spreading the word of God throughout the world. The New Testament is comprised of first-hand accounts of Jesus life, death and re-emergence and instructions and perspectives of the early leaders of the church, like John, Paul and Peter.

When the declining Roman Empire established Christianity as its official state religion, the Catholic Church was born as a major religious entity. The Church has split and gone through periods of reformation but the tenets put forth by the Nicene and Apostolic creeds still remain central to the faith.

Creeds and Tenets of Faith
The written creeds of a faith provide a good basis for comparison with other religions. In the early formation of the Mormon Church, leaders put together statements of faith that reaffirmed many basic Christian principles. This was done, in part, because the Church was criticized heavily in the mid-1800s for its perceived departures from traditional Christian doctrine.

Early Mormon statements of faith resemble the Nicene Creed of Catholicism. The areas of difference in the Mormon statements are subtly approached. For example, while actually appearing to affirm the traditional Christian doctrine of the Trinity...Latter Day Saints statements actually affirm the three persons of the Godhead as three different deities, not one (Melton, 1988).

Church leaders were walking a thin line. The survival of the Church against its foes dictated a change of doctrine or at least the appearance of change. This process of compromise ensured the survival of the LDS as a major religion. At the same time, a number of alternative sects have been established, some still practicing polygamy and other discarded elements of Mormonism. .

The Mormon tenets are called statements of faith and not creeds for a reason. Joseph Smith claimed that the Lord told him that all creeds were an abomination (Morrow, 2010). This relieved Smith and the Mormons from having to adhere to the ancient creeds of Catholicism. Joseph Smith wanted to craft what were essentially a new set of creeds tailored to his Church and the visions he had received.

Catholicism, in contrast, draws deeply upon the past. The creeds were constructed through much effort by clergy in a legitimate line of succession at a time closer to when Christ walked the earth. It is just to adhere to them even in modern times. In the Catholic Church Tradition is revered and, together with scripture is considered to make a single sacred deposit of the word of God entrusted to the Church (Crim 1981).

In order to achieve the goal of statehood for Utah, the Church was forced to drop its most controversial practice - polygamy. Over the course of time the Catholic Church has also been forced to make concessions on some issues, but not to remove any central tenets of the faith. For the early Mormons polygamy was considered a central tenet.

The Mormon Church, early on, was an all-white church. The Book of Mormon also states that dark skin is actually a punishment from God for past and present sins. Decades later Mormon leaders repudiated this concept and it is no longer the policy of the Church. The Catholic Church formed differently in that it was a multi-cultural Church from the start. Many cultures were already present in the region it was founded.

Despite the renunciation of practices such as polygamy and race-based exclusion, Catholic leaders still see the LDS as heretical for a number of reasons. Early Mormon statements of faith indicate that salvation can be achieved by following the bylaws of the Church. Catholic and Protestant Christians agree that a person of true faith will be compelled to follow Church doctrine. They do not agree that salvation itself can be achieved this way. It is faith in Jesus Christ and Gods grace that provide salvation. In other words, Catholics do not believe that good deeds win salvation. This is clearly stated in the Bible.

For Catholics there is one Holy book - The Bible. It was created from divine guidance and stands as the one true representation as Gods word. Mormons agree that the Bible is the Holy word of God, but also that the canon is not closed. Mormon founder Joseph Smith, Jr. claimed to have told of a new source of truth called the Book of Mormon. From the Articles of Faith (Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints

We believe the Bible to be the word of God as far as it is translated
correctly we also believe the Book of Mormon to be the word of God.
(Melton, 1988)

The Book of Mormon relates a prehistoric story of America. A lost tribe of Israel is said to have lived among the Native Americans. In addition to adding the mythic story of America to the Christian canon, the Book of Mormon contradicts the Catholic concept of apostolic succession. A new religious order and the new Promised Land would be confirmed. According to Crim The text tells of a post resurrection appearance of Christ to establish proper religious order and confirm religious truth (Crim 1981). Catholicism recognizes no such subsequent appearance of Christ on earth. Catholic doctrine states that Christ will not appear on earth again until he comes to remove his followers to heaven before the rapture.

While the origins of the Bible are well known, the origins of the Book of Mormon are more mysterious. Smith claimed to have found it The Book of Mormon its location being revealed by an angel named Moroni (Brandon, 1970).

Another critical tenet of the Catholic Church is of the permanence and omnipotence of God. He is powerful, all-knowing and forever the same. In contrast, Joseph Smith believed that God was once a man. In the Abingdon Dictionary of Living Religions Crim writes Smith argued that God is a self-made, finite deity with a material body (Crim, 1981). Disagreement also extends to the concept of the Holy Trinity.

The Nicene Creed, an important Catholic statement of faith, presents a different conceptualization of God than the Mormon statements of faith. Instead of being three separate Gods as LDS doctrine states, the Trinity is a single God that manifests itself to us in three forms the heavenly father, his son Jesus and the Holy Spirit. In human conception they are three distinct elements. In reality they are all the same God.

Mormons take different interpretations on other parts of the New Testament or omit their mention all together. Mary, mother of Jesus, is a revered character in the Catholic tradition. Jesus was born of Mary not of mans doing but by Gods doing. The Immaculate Conception, for Catholics, is clear evidence of the omnipotence of God and the holiness of Jesus. Mormon tradition does not focus on this event.
While honoring Mary, Latter-day Saints have no equivalent of the doctrines
 of the Immaculate Conception, perpetual virginity, and bodily assumption of
Mary, nor of the Orthodox veneration of icons.
(Benney and Keller, 2010)

These differences aside, both religions celebrate Christmas and Easter. The birth and particularly the death and resurrection of Christ are equally important in both Churches. Both Churches have also put an emphasis on scholarship and are important sources of history and knowledge recognized world wide.

Applications of Faith
Given the Mormon conception of the development of God, it can only follow that earthy deeds are extremely important. If God was a man who knew ultimate truth, then the people should also be able to earn a place in heaven. Mormonism changed the biblical doctrine of being saved by faith to being saved after all we can do (Morrow, 2010). We are still saved by Gods grace, but attaining that grace means we have to earn it. Catholics and Protestants believe that we all fall short of the glory of God, no matter what we do.

The Catholic Church sees rituals as important expressions of faith. The bread and wine of the Sacrament, for example, are to be considered the literal body of Christ. The Mormon Church does not share this belief but does put high importance on ritual, rites of passage and Church bylaws.

Baptism is another practice in which there are differing views. Though both Churches have an educational programs designed to prepare candidates for baptism, there can be differences in the actual methods of the ceremony. The Mormon Church believes that only full immersion is sufficient. The Catholic Church uses both immersion and sprinkling in their baptism rituals.

In the daily lives of its parishioners the Mormon Church disallows the use of such products as alcohol, tobacco and stimulants. This dates back to a law instituted in 1833 by Joseph Smith himself. There is no longer a civil penalty for using these products but social and institutional penalties can be severe. The Catholic Church discourages the use of these items to the extent that they affect the behavior of individuals or the destruction of families.

Generally speaking, the Mormon Church seeks tighter regulation of the lives of its members. In the Catholic Church, individuals are expected to strive for sin-free lives. At the same time there is a recognition that all, even the clergy, will ultimately fail at some point. Repentance and renewal are therefore paramount.

Analysis and Conclusion
The Roman Catholic Church is a massive worldwide institution. It has its own independent principality, the Vatican. The Pope is a religious leader that is deferred to by Christians and non-Christians alike. The Mormon Church has no equivalent to the Pope, but carries influence in the areas where membership is densest. The two religions were formed two thousand years apart on different continents.

The Roman Catholic Church today still dwarfs the LDS in terms of size and influence. The LDS Church however is growing at a faster rate. Taking into account the difficulty of its beginnings the growth of the LDS has been phenomenal. It shares that distinction with the early Catholic Church centuries before.

For Catholics the growth of the LDS is not due to the truism of its faith, but instead to the human tendency toward self-deception. The differences in the Churches boil down to whether one believes there are great modern-day prophets and whether the Bible is the solitary word of God. Both Churches are Christ-centered. Beyond this, there are doctrinal differences that make one Church very distinct from the other.

The book Romance of Redemption is written by renowned Bible scholar M.R. De Haan.  The book centers on the story of Ruth, one of the prinicipal personalities in the Old Testament.  The story of Ruth tells about filial piety exhibited by Ruth, a Maobite (Gentile) woman to her mother-in-law, Naomi.  Naomi told her widowed daughters-in-law, Oprah and Ruth to return to their families as she decided to return to her homeland.  Oprah complied but Ruth asked to stay by her side. This is captured in in the Book of Ruth  Do not ask me to abandon or forsake you For wherever you go, I will go, wherever you lodge, I will lodge, your people shall be my people, and your God my God. Wherever you die I will die, and there be buried. May the Lord do so and so to me, and more besides, if aught but death separates me from you (The New American Bible, Ruth 1.16-17)   Besides this extraordinary display of filial piety, Ruth also demonstrates her willingness to make big sacrifices of having to leave her homeland to return to the land of her mother-in-law.

Upon arriving in Bethlehem, it was the time of the barley harvest and Ruth went to the fields to glean in the fields owned by a prominent Jew named Boaz who is a kinsman of Naomi.  Upon seeing this foreign woman in his field, Boaz instructed his people to look after Ruth and attend to her needs.  After Ruth told Naomi of her encounter with Boaz, she helped Ruth to become more presentable to Boaz by familiarizing her with their customs.  Boaz was pleased even more that he eventually married her.  From their union they would sire Obed, who would become to father of Jesse, and he the father of David who would eventually become the great king of Israel (Ruth 4.17,22).

But the story of Ruth is not merely a biblical  love story,  there is much more to this than a foreign woman who demonstrated deep commitment and won the heart of a wealthy landowner.  This is also a story of redemption.  Metaphorically, Naomi represents Israel and Ruth would act as a catalyst towards its redemption.  Naomi initially left Caanan improverished to seek greener pastures elsewhere.  When her husband and sons left her, she decided to return to her estate still in debt.  Ruths entry into the picture has set the wheels in motion for redemption which came in the person of Boaz (De Haan, 16-17, 28, 43).  By marrying Ruth, Naomi was  redeemed.   Such was the case of Israel (De Haan, 52).  Her people had been exiled many times only to come back and rebuild themselves until the coming of a Redeemer who would bring about salvation.  From Boaz and Ruths house would spring forth the progeny that would help being about the coming of the Redeemer in Jesus Christ (De Haan, 36).  Besides, Ruth, another personality in the Bible faced a similar situation   Queen Esther whose courage redeemed her people from annihilation and ensure the preservation and continued existence of her people (De Haan, 21).

On a more personal level, as stated in De Haans book, it can also speak about personal redemption.  The challenge here is to be willing to leave behind everything they even hold dear and venture out into a world that is uncertain.  Ruth had disregarded whatever self-interests she may have had to go with Naomi back to her homeland.  She left behind her homeland which had been her  comfort zone  to glean in the barley fields. But her faith, that is her willingness to embrace Naomis God, ensured that she will be blessed when she caught the eye of Boaz (De Haan, 45, 55-56).  By trusting in God, everything fell right into place to set the stage for what is to come in the future which would be full of blessings.