Religion and Theology

Rabbis fulfill two important roles in the Jewish society.  The interpretive function as well as the legislative function.  When they made decisions as well as interpretations the function was judicial and in issuing ordinances and enactments they execute a legislative role. As far as general humanity is concerned this is done only in institutions.  But the Rabbinic authority being religious, functions much like an institution.  But all of it was accepted only if it was not against any of the written law, because none could contradict the written law or the Torah which had been given to Moses by the Almighty.  It consisted of two parts one was the written Torah and the other was the Oral Torah which was a commentary of the written one.  Till the second century of C.E. The oral Torah was transmitted by mouth. During the third century, Rabbi Judah the Prince felt that it could be lost.  So he compiled the basics into a six part document called the Mishnah.  It was in the teaching of this oral tradition and the interpretation of the written text that the influence of the sages mainly depended on.  The sages include all the names mentioned in the Talmudic period.

The Rabbis or Sages. The period of the Talmudic age may be marked by centers of learning that thrived during the particular periods. The period of AD 70 - AD133-5 is described as the Jabneh era.  This was the time of Rabbi Johannan Ben Zakkai who was a moderate, in his views.  He, during the impending doom of Jerusalem reached the Roman army camp and predicted accurately the appointment of Titus to the imperial throne.  With this, he was able to secure a future Jewish religious life and begged for the safety of Hillel the elder and saved Yavneh and its sages.  The sages of Yavneh redefined the festival calendar, which rituals should continue in the absence of the temple, which was destroyed, and established a judiciary system with Yavneh at its apex, instead of the Sanhedrin.

Rabbi Judah the Patriarch was called our holy Rabbi. He was very pious, wealthy and learned.  He created the Mishnah that was an authoritative statement of Jewish law. The scholars who produced the Mishnah were called the Amoriam, which represented loudspeakers who recited aloud the statements of the leading rabbis.  Later on the name passed on to the scholars themselves. They continued for about six generations.  During this period the rabbis became a major force in the Jewish religious scholarship. The Amoraic age mainly differs with the Tannaim age in the use of Aramaic instead of Hebrew as the language. Later on the Amoraic works easily eclipsed the works of the Tannaitic era.  The Mishnah alone does not encompass the whole of the oral tradition as it also includes the Tannaitic era books too.

Rabbi Joshua Ben Levi lived in Judah, and studied at the feet of three great scholars.  He is said to have met with Elijah from whom he learned the deepest wisdom of the Torah. He and his friend Rabbi Chanina bar Chama were always chosen as emissaries to visit the Roman rulers because of their appearance like angels. Rav Huna belonged to the second generation of Amoriam in the beginning of the third century. He was rich, righteous and a Leader of Israel. He was a sage and people believed that whoever saw him in a dream would receive a miracle.   Rav Nacham established principles dealing with disputes in money matters.  He constructed a pledge in case of debt denials.

Thus the Rabbis influenced the Jewish and the religion throughout the Talmudic age. They made legislations and interpreted the law for the common people.  To quote all of them in this situation would be impossibility for their number is many and their talents and influence varied (From genesis).

Early  Christianity  was  influenced  and  evolved  in  ancient  times. Early  Christian  did  not  believe  that  the  birthplace  of  Jesus  Christ  was  left  to  chance  but  was  Gods  working. The  early  church  was  always  connected  with  the  outside  world. Early  Christians  were Jews  and  then  were  followed  by  the  sect  called  the  gentiles. Christianity  first  appeared  in  Palestine. Due  its  favorable  geographic  location  of  Palestine. In  the  4th  century, Alexander  conquered  Palestine. He  spread  the  insights  of  the  Greek  civilization. This  combined  with  beliefs  from  the native  cultures  led  to  what  was  called  Hellenism. Under  the  rule  of  Alexander  the  great, the  whole  region  of  the  Mediterranean  basin  united  under  one  rule, that  of  the  Roman  Empire.

Hellenism  mostly considered  the  various  gods  as  equal. The  beliefs  Hellenism  equated  or  mixed  the  gods  of  various  nations. This  led  to  the  creation  of  a  negative  image  about  Hellenism  in  the  early  Jewish  community  who  believed  in  one God. This  led  to  unrest  in  Palestine. The  Jewish  community  began  to  look  at  Hellenism  as  being  against  their  faiths  and  traditions. This  gave  rise  to  the  Jewish  rebellion  in  the  2nd  century, these  rebels  were  known  as  the  Maccabees. This  movement  was  however  suppressed  by  the  Hellenizing  pressures, and Roman  intervention  led  to  the  deposition  of  the  last  Maccabees, Arislobulus II  in  the  63  B.C.

In  40  B.C.  when  Herod  became  the  king  of  Judea, the empire  turned  quite  tolerant  towards  the  Jewish  traditions. King Herod  built  temples all  over  Judea, but  when  he  placed  the  statue  of  an  eagle  at  the  entrance  of one  of  the  temples  a  major  uprising  began  in  its  opposition. This  uprising  was  however  suppressed  by  force. The  successors  of  king  Herod  also  followed  the  same  policy  and  also  encouraged  the  immigration  of  the  Gentiles  into  Judea. Hence  in  this  scenario, there  was  continuous  rebellion  from  the  Jews. Many  changes  in  the  Jewish  traditions  occurred  in  the  time  that  followed. Two  major  sects  developed  during  this  time, the Pharises, and  the  Saducees. The  Pharises   believed  in  leading  life  by  being  more  faithful  to  the  law, they  declared  their  belief  in  the  Resurrectionand  the  existence  of  angels. The  more  conservative  Jews  or  the  Saducees disagreed  with  the  traditions  and  beliefs  of  the  Pharisees. It  can  also  be  said  that  the  early  opposition  to  Jesus  and  His  preachings  was  more  from  the  Saducees. There  was  another  sect  formed  called  the  Essenes, who  believed  in  obeying  the  law  strictly, they  also  withdrew  from  the  society. There  were  two  fundamental  tenets  of  all  the  Jews, Ethical  monotheism, and  Eschatological  hope. Ethical  monotheism  believed  in  One  God, they  stressed  that  being  a  good  Jew  not  only  meant     proper  worship  but  also  proper  relations  with  our  fellow  human  beings. The Eschalogical  Hope  believed  in  the  belief  that  according  to  Gods  promise  He  would  deliver  everyone  one  day  and  there  will  be  a  kingdom  which  would  be  just  and  prosperous. All  Jews  kept  this  Messianic  hope.

Due  to  the  destruction  of  the  temple  in  70  B.C., the  Saducees  received  a  mortal  blow. The  Pharisees  however  flourished  due  to  their  theological  traditions. Before  the  birth  of  Jesus, the  Jews  spread  in  every  major  city  of  the  Roman  empire, they  had  a  strong  attachment  to  their  roots. These  were  called  the  Diaspora  Jews, which  later  became  the  main  avenue  through  which  new  faith  expanded. These  Jews  had  forgotten  their  native  language  that  was  Hebrew, hence  the  Hebrew  literature  was  translated  in  various  other  languages. The  translation  that  originated  in  Alexandria  was  called  Septuagint, which  was  also  important  to  the  early  church. The  word  Christ is  Septuagint  for  Messiah or  chosen one. The  Diaspora  Jews  greatly worked  towards  finding  to  find  compatibility  between  their  culture  and  Hellenism  to  show  the  pagan  world  that  their  faith  was  credible.
                                                       
The  Hellenistic  culture  and  the  Roman  law  were  the  context  in  which  the  early  church  took  shape. Two  philosophical  traditions  were  helpful  to  the  spread  of  early  Christian  church, Platonism, and  Stocism. Platonism  believed  in  the  immortality of  the  soul, the stoics  believed in  life  without  passions  abiding  by  the  law  which  found  favour  in  the  early  church. The  early  church  was  growing  and  it  included  people  from  many  different  races. It  was  this  diversity  was  in  which  the  early  church  laid  the  foundations  of  the  faith  followed  by  Christians  around  the  world.

Represented the Ethos of the Age of Definition  
The Talmud on Rabbinic Authority is an interesting piece of theological text that might pose a dilemma in comprehension and interpretation to someone not acquainted with the backdrop to Jewish scriptures, or to someone not tutored about the historic tug-of-war over the domain of legitimate authority in Judaism. Lets briefly discuss the contents of the abovementioned text before we attempt to explain it such as one might.
   
This section of the Talmud begins with a debate over a relatively innocuous matter, viz. whether the Akhnai Stove remained vulnerable to ritual defilement, as maintained by several sages, or proved immune to ritual sullying, as declared by Rabbi Eliezer. Rabbi Eliezer is then portrayed as being in an argument with others holding a contrary view whereupon, after his best of arguments apparently falling upon deaf ears, he proclaims the virtual occurrence of a miracle, to testify to the truism of his ideas.
   
The desired miracle of the carob tree was instantly caused, but to no avail. Rabbi Eliezer is next narrated as variously asking the stream and the walls of the academy to prove his stance true. A minor complication is introduced with the walls seemingly deferring to the words of Rabbi Joshua as well. So, if truth was being asserted by means of miracles, the duel had progressed beyond words into even the realm of the supernatural as well.
   
Finally, Rabbi Eliezer invokes the heavens to come to his aid. A voice from the heavens unambiguously confirms The law is as he propounds it in all instances. However, this was not the last word on the subject. Rabbi Joshua refuted divine testimony by quoting Deuteronomy 3012 with the following clinching effect, It is not in the heavens.  Rabbi Jeremiah supports Rabbi Joshua by arguing that since the Torah had already been imparted, We pay no attention to heavenly voices, and recalled the injunction in Exodus 232 to Incline after the majority. When Rabbi Nathan asks Prophet Elijah what God may have been doing then, the latter replies that God laughingly accepts that His children have won over Him.    
   
One can offer several observations and derive a few succinct conclusions from this perplexing narration. The first is that the Rabbis were a rather divided lot, arguing over ideas and beliefs. Rabbi Eliezer appears to be bathed in a true presentation of the laws, because nature obviously works miracles to uphold and prove his words. However, there are other Rabbis to reckon with too, and miracles get modified even upon their words. So, the Rabbis are collectively important, and none may claim to monopolize an interpretation of the laws.
   
The casual manner in which Rabbi Jeremiah slights divine signs by quoting the scriptures is a telling commentary on the rising prominence of the authority of the Rabbis, to the detriment of the other Judaic texts. It does not help our understanding much to realize that Rabbi Jeremiah misquotes Exodus 232, which actually cautions against accepting the view of the many Thou shalt not follow a multitude to do evil neither shalt thou speak in a cause to decline after many to wrest judgment.
   
The Talmud on Rabbinic Authority represents the very essence and ethos of the age of definition. The Rabbis had begun to be increasingly vested with authority. Moreover, the sheer ease with which the Rabbis could deny both the scriptures and even miracles to assert their own various versions of reality indicated a phase of ferment, rediscovery and potential strife in Judaism.  

The analysis of biblical scriptures in the contemporary world is considerably hectic considering the variety of interpretations that scholars and lay men use in extracting the truth from the scripture. In this study, an effort will be made to perform a surgery on one of the most fundamental book especially in its concern to drawing a correlation between the old and the New Testament. Pauls letter to the Romans is in a great way doctrinal. Like other books in the New Testament, the book is rooted in history and borrows heavily from the Old Testament to make explanations and justifications. Although it is not a systematic theological book, the book is in form of a letter written to the first Roman church and scholars are in general agreement that the letter was written in a specific circumstance and therefore should be interpreted correctly considering its context.
The letter contains numerous direct quotations as well as inferences and allusions from the Old Testament mainly drawn from prophetic books such as Isaiah, Hosea and a host from the Psalms. Having been a Roman, there is a great possibility that the Old Testament played a crucial part in the early life of Paul.

However, he admits that his experience with Christ on his way to Damascus was the most fundamental in his new life.  As illustrated in Romans 1622, Paul used a scribe named Tertius to write the letter, which was in accordance with the ancient custom of writings. It is indicative that the letter was dictated by Paul and that Mertius responsibility was only in composing the written manuscripts.  Understanding the book of Romans therefore requires an appreciation of the context in which the book was written.  Though the book addresses a myriad of scriptural issues, one of the primary subjects addressed concerns the law and grace and the distinction between the two dispensations dispensation of law and that of Grace. One fundamental inference made in this book, though controversial concerns the abolishment of the law and its subsequent replacement with a more justifying and spiritual law that was introduced into the world through Jesus Christ.

In the introductory chapter, Paul introduces what remains to be one of his central teachings throughout the book in Romans 1 17 where he quotes a passage from Habakkuk 24 that the righteous will live by faith. The authority and dexterity with which Paul develops the letter to the Romans is indicative of his background in Judaism training especially under the tutorage of Gamaliel, an established biblical scholar of his days.  Paul begins by asserting that the Gospel he was proclaiming was not of his own making. He asserts that he passed on what he had received, primarily that Christ died for the sins of human kind in accordance with what had been prophesied. Paul is keen to demonstrate that his gospel is similar to what the other disciple had proclaimed and that there was no contradiction to his teachings and that of the Old Testament. Having established this and having introduced his transition from one who opposed the gospel to one who proclaimed it, Paul moves on to the substance of his gospel which consisted of a variety of themes as explored in this study. As a way of introduction, this study will explore the introductory chapter by analyzing some of the scriptures that Paul used as a way of introducing the book. In verse 16, Paul asserts that
 I am not ashamed of the gospel, because it is the power of God for the salvation of every one who believes, first for the Jew, then for the Gentile.

One of the concerns of biblical scholars has been why at the outset of his first letter to the church at his home he should claim that he was not ashamed. As a way of justifying his statement, he invokes Habakkuk 2 14 that the just shall live by faith. According to Watts in Soderlund and Wright (1999) Paul had every reason to be ashamed. The gospel that he was presenting to the Romans seemed to displace the Jews and their traditions and in its place seemed to give preference to the wicked Gentiles who traditionally had no place in the promises established under Judaism. Thus as Paul introduces himself to this church, he is well aware of the scandalous prospect that the gospel seemed to project for the old order of things and therefore had to rely on scriptures derived from the old testament to establish that the gospel he was presenting was not conflicting to the Old testament. To aid in analyzing how Paul used the old testament in this book, this study will analyze some of the key messages contained in the book and explore how they were analyzed using the old testament. The messages are
Righteousness versus Law Observance
Adam and Jesus Compared
Written code Versus Grace
Place (Purpose) of the law
Salvation through faith
Jewish customs
The mystery of salvation
The debt of love
Righteousness versus Law Observance

The second chapter of Romans starts by addressing righteousness as per the gospel. First, Paul asserts facts borrowed from the Old Testament that all wrong doers, who break the law will be punished in the eternal wrath of God. This is important since it establishes the fact that Paul acknowledged the claims of the Old Testament concerning the observance of the law in its fullness. It is important however to notice verse 9 where he mentions that judgment will befall all those who are evil, irrespective of whether they were under law or not. This is an exit from the earlier Jewish belief that all Gentiles were doomed to destruction since they were not given the law. It is also a departure from the original Jewish belief that justification was based on works and the law. Notice that the scripture mentions that wrath would befall all who were evil (not all who were not law keepers). There is also an important point that Paul mentions in verse 11 where he writes that God does not show favoritism. In the traditional Jewish setting, the idea of favoritism reigned high, especially with regard to the Gentiles who were initially regarded as outcasts to the supreme plan and purpose of God. The period during which the law was given, the Gentiles were seen as enemies to the people of God and as such, introducing a doctrine in which God would be seen to be considerate to the Gentiles was a bit foreign to these Romans. Paul also introduces a concept that people born and brought up under the Jewish tradition would find hard to relate to. On verse 215, he asserts that the Gentiles show that they have a law written within their consciences. This is a departure from the traditional Jewish belief that justification was through physical observance through works, since the idea of the conscience is not shown anywhere within the law. It is an introduction to the faith that Paul professed, of believing, of faith and of having a relationship with Christ, which would be the basis of Justification in the gospel. It is also prudent to note the repeated comment that Paul asserts of the recipients to the law. First he establishes that the Gentiles were not under the law, and he also acknowledges that the law only applied to those people who were under it.

Now we know that whatever the law says, it says to those who are under the law

Paul introduces the concept of law making men conscious of sin. As such, it is noted here that Paul used the Old Testament laws to assert the role of the law in making men conscious of their sin rather than making them righteous. In chapter 77, he acknowledges that were it not for the law, he would not have known sin. The law, which is the main component of the Old Testament, is hence an instrumental component of what Paul would in later epistles refer to sin.

Adam and Jesus Compared
Adam, the first in the human race is introduced in the bible in Genesis 1. Before Adam sinned, he lived in perfect harmony with God and was allowed access and dominion over all Gods creation except of the tree of life. His implies man and his coexistence with the supreme creator is meant to be a representation of a relationship between man and God in the absence of sin. Adam in the first book of the bible is portrayed as the genesis of human kind and also more significant the progenitor of all human problems following the fall in the garden of Aden. The allegiance to all sin committed by man is derived from the original sin committed by Adam and is interpreted as disobedience to the express word of God. Before this, there existed a close relationship between man and God that was broken when man sinned. From that time, man became separated from God in what is referred to as death-spiritual separation from God. For the sake of analysis, it is important to mention how significantly the bible repeatedly mentions the original sin yet the mention of Adam is almost non-existent throughout the other parts of the bible except in this chapter under study.
In comparing Adam and Jesus in Romans 5, Paul asserts that the same way that death entered the human system through one man, so did life and everlasting redemption entered the world through one person, Jesus. The fundamental concept here is that of life and death which is repeated many times in the Old Testament. For the Jews who were under the law, it was required that they fulfill the law upon which they would live. Failure to fulfill the requirements of the law resulted to death. In the new law, established by faith,, the same requirements is established where men through the guidance of the holy spirit are supposed to be submissive to the spirits leading failure to which, there will be eternal condemnation. It is prudent also to attempt to understand why Paul makes a comparison between these two biblical figures.

Theologically, Adam and Jesus share a number of similarities. First, their birth unlike those of other human beings was not by the will of man but through divine mechanism. Adam, through creation and the subsequent breath of life from God and Jesus, through divine birth. In this chapter therefore, Paul views Adam as resembling Christ in the sense that both of them bore a fate that affected the whole of the human race.  Whereas Adams sins led to the spiritual death of man, the death and resurrection of Christ produced repercussions on all men, both Jews and Gentiles. As such, Jesus is equivalent to the second Adam in the sense of their overall responsibility and impact on the rest off the human race. Though Paul is interested in showing the similarity that existed between these two, he goes on to analyze the effects that their being produced on mankind. In Romans 515, he asserts that, The free gift is unlike the trespass. This implies that the negative consequences produced by the fall and sin of Adam are far outweighed by the positive effects of a risen and resurrected Christ. In Pauls analysis, Adams sin brought rebellion, disobedience, sin, death and condemnation upon all humankind. On the other hand, the resurrection and Christs sacrificial fidelity brought the possibility of righteousness, obedience, acquittaljustification and the possibility of a future eternal life. The result of the fall of the first man was the reign of sin, law and death. The result of the resurrection of the second Adam produced the reign of grace and eternal life.

Written code Versus Grace
The Jewish custom was heavily reliant on the written law given to Moses on Mt. Sinai. In the book of Romans, some of the laws that get an early mention include the law on circumcision. According to the Jewish custom, justification came as a result of physical observance of the law through the physical undertaking of activities, rites and ceremonies. Since the law was given to the Jews, they felt justified when they observed the regulations and ordinances required of them such as the fulfillment of the law of Sabbath, the fulfillment of the ten commandments and the various regulations that appertained to giving. Since the Roman church that Paul addressed was well rooted in Judaism, it was likely that they would not easily understand the meaning of grace which in a way seemed to contradict the requirements of the law. Paul starts by asserting that the righteousness that was contained in the gospel that he was proclaiming to them was not fulfilled through the observance of the law but through faith. In the second chapter, he addresses the idea of being a Jew. The Jewish tradition required that men be circumcised on the 8th day and circumcision was hence seen as a justification and a qualification for being a righteous Jew.

A man was not considered a Jew if he had not been circumcised physically, but Paul asserts that mere physical circumcision is merely an outward show.

Here, Paul introduces what would remain to be a consistent message throughout the epistle, that, the gospel he was proclaiming was not based on the physical observance of the law. His letter therefore serves as an introduction to the distinction that was introduced in the world by Jesus Christ. In the gospel, salvation comes through faith, which is not based on physical works but on hearing and believing in God. Considering the context in which this letter is written, it is to be appreciated here that the members of the Roman church were Jews whose foundations were deeply rooted in Judaism and therefore would find it hard to incorporate a way of life in which the observance of the law did not justify them. According to Paul, the works under the law contained an inherent weakness. For instance, being circumcised was expected under the law. However, if one broke any other law, he broke all the laws and as such, became like an uncircumcised person.

In chapter 321 Paul expounds on what he calls righteousness through faith. In this righteousness, the first admission is that all have sinned and fallen short of the glory of God. This assertion is different from the Old Testament principle in which the Jews were the chosen of God and were justified based on the fulfillment of the various requirements required by the Old Testament.  It is also different in classifying the entire human race together, both the Jews and the Gentiles who had been treated differently in the Old Testament. In this righteousness established under grace, Paul asserts that it comes through faith in Christ Jesus. In this chapter, there is a mention of the atoning power of the blood of Christ which borrows from the atoning power of the blood of sacrifice in the Old Testament. By referring to the Genesis figure of the father of faith, Abraham, Paul demonstrates that the blessing on Abraham was not based on works but on his act of faith.

When God called Abraham and asked him to sacrifice his son in Mt. Moriah, he believed Him who asked to do it to be able to raise from the dead that which was committed to him. On following Gods command based on his belief, God credited righteousness to Abraham. On the basis of this, Paul argues that actual righteousness is not established through law. This is because when Abraham was credited as righteous, the law had not yet been given. Furthermore, when he was credited as righteous, he was not yet circumcised as required by the law. As such, being blessed and being counted as being righteous for Abraham did not occur on the fulfillment of physical conditions but came through his intrinsic belief and trust in God. The inference therefore here is that Paul uses Abraham, a figure in the Old testament to illustrate his meaning of righteousness and justification. Considering the context of the Roman church, this illustration was necessary in helping the members to understand the salvation that Jesus brought. It was also important in introducing the church to the connection between the righteousness of the old and the New Testament. Paul asserts that Abraham demonstrated that Abraham fulfilled both the righteousness requirement as required by the law he later became circumcised as a seal of his covenant implying that he became a father to all those who were circumcised, and hence a father of observing the law. Since he had been credited as righteous even before circumcision, it implies that righteousness was also recognized among those of whom circumcision was not a requirement. As such, the full message of Christ, that is, salvation was open to all people was effectively established.

Purpose of the Law
Paul uses the Old Testament to expound on why the law cannot be discarded as useless. First, the law is important in establishing what sin is. As long as someone is under the law, he is bound by it and breaking it brings the realization of sin. For instance, Paul argues that he would not have known what coveting was if there was no law on coveting.  As such, he establishes the importance of the existence of the law yet within its importance laid a weakness in that knowing the law led one to know sin which led to death. In making a contrast between the old and the New Testament, Paul asserts that the Old Testament had as weakness in itself in that the law counted one a sinner as long as he was bound by it. For instance, according to the law, a married woman was bound to her husband as long as the husband was alive. Upon the death of the husband, the law seized to be effective and if the woman remarried, she would not have committed adultery.  The Mosaic Law was a guide to the way the children of Israel were supposed to live. As such, it was the way of life for them in regard to their customs, social and religious activities as well as the administration of the resources. In this way of life, a procedure had been established that was to be used in cleansing people from their sins. Normally, this was in the form of sacrifices that were supposed to be carried often and specific to the guilt. For every sin, there was an established modality of sacrificing for the atonement of sins.

The mystery of salvation
It appears that when Paul was writing the 9th chapter, a dilemma of some sort was in his mind. It is in this chapter that he introduces the almost undecipherable explanation on the mystery of salvation. One challenge that comes out in these scriptures is Pauls attempt to explain how the Gentiles could become in grafted to become part of the people of God. It is the inference of this study that Paul was attempting to incorporate three groups of people in this chapter. First, the Jewish Christians like himself, the Jews who were adamant to the gospel and the Gentile Christians who were vital to his calling as an apostle. In trying to incorporate the three groups in the overall plan of God, Paul used the olive tree symbol to explain the mystery. He identified Christians among the Jews like himself as the root of the tree while the Gentile Christians were identified as branches derived from a wild olive tree that were grafted into the true tree representing the new Israel as Gods chosen people. The Jews who disregarded the gospel of Christ are identified as the branches that were cut off from the original olive tree.  He however identifies that these Jews have a chance to be grafted back.
In making an effort to explain the mystery of salvation, he borrows consistently from Old Testament scriptures. In Chapter 925, he borrows key expressions such as not beloved and not my people borrowed from the book of Hosea.  Paul Uses the phrases to refer to the Gentiles who he asserts that they were initially not belonging to God but that they were now beloved and therefore deserved to be included as part of the children of God. By inferring from Isaiah 1022-23, Paul identified the Jewish Christian as the remnants of God. He also asserts that God had not entirely abandoned the house of Israel to destruction like in Sodom and Gomorrah but had preserved a population of Jewish Christians like himself. As such, Paul uses the Old Testament to establish the relationship that was established among all human race in what he describes as the mystery of salvation.

The summation of Love
The Ten Commandments had been summarized by Jesus into two love the lord your God and love your neighbor. As such, the ministry and message of love is a fundamental message in the entire scripture.  In a message of love as borrowed from the summation of the Ten Commandments, Paul in Romans 138 exhorts the Christians to owe no one except on the debt of love. According to him, loving ones neighbor is a fulfillment of the law.

The epistle of Paul to the Romans carries a clear message that Jesus was crucial in understanding all scripture. In addition, he vigorously exhorts the Christians to understand the salvation that was based on faith other than the mere physical observance of the law.  It is important to recognize here that despite Pauls acknowledgement of Christ as the sole interpretation of the scripture, he goes into great depth to connect the meaning of the Old Testament to the New Testament teachings. As such, he relies on the prophecies in the Old Testament and gathers scriptural text to draw a theoretical typology or arguments. It would be right to infer here that the heavy reliance that Paul accorded the Old Testament scriptures implied that he acknowledged their authority and relevance for the Christian even after the new covenant established by Christ. It is also recognized here that the epistle to the Romans present an intellectual argument of biblical facts that could have only been possible for someone who had a good intellectual basis of Judaism.  

In all of the worlds religions, Christianity and Islam have proven to be the most dominant.  Although sharing distinct differences, these two religions nevertheless share a common similarity a belief in One True God.

This characteristic makes these two religions differentiable from other creeds that teach numerous deities of godly entities.  Thus, it is worth noting to have a deeper understanding on its two founders, Jesus Christ and Prophet Muhammad, and how their respective teachings were able to influence countless preceding generations from different nations even after their deaths.

Jesus and Muhammad
Jesus Christ

As what tradition dictates, Jesus Christ was born at around 2000 years ago in Bethlehem, to a virgin mother named Mary, who was at the time already engaged to be married to a rightful and just man named Joseph.

This miracle was made possible thru an apparitionvisitation made by Angel Gabriel to Mary, bearing Gods message of the fulfillment of prophesies made in the Old Testament that a Savior would be sent to reclaim Israel to its former glory.

Hence the young Jesus grew in stature and in strength and was filled with Gods wisdom, for the grace of God was upon Him.  However, it was only on his 30th year when he started His ministry.  It involved numerous miracles, healings, and teachings on love for mankind and on God, which lasted for three years, and after which He was crucified on the cross.

The Prophet Muhammad
The Prophet Muhammad was born on April 20, 571 AD, in the Arabian Peninsula (The Brief Life, 2005, p. 1).  His father, Abdullah, although poor, was a direct descendant of Ishmael, the son of Abraham while his mother was Amina the daughter of Wahab.  As their family was poor, at 16 years of age he was employed under Khadeejah, who was from a prominent family of business women, and by time he was 25, Prophet Muhammad married her (The Brief Life, 2005, p. 1).

Prophet Muhammads ministry started thru a series of visions at night from Angel Gabriel, wherein he was told of future events that would prove to be accurate as he had envisioned them (The Brief Life, 2005, p. 1).  During the course of these visionsvisitations by Angel Gabriel, Muhammad was given direct instructions from God, or Allah in Arabic, that consisted on the rightful path towards total submission to the will of Allah.  Prophet Muhammad died when he was 63 years old his Islam life ministry lasting exactly 23 years (The Brief Life, 2005, p. 4).

Jesus and Prophet Muhammads Death, on Their Respective Religion
In Christian beliefs, Jesus death holds the defining moment of the faiths exponential propagation.  Thoroughly empowered by the Holy Spirit upon His resurrection, His disciples went to the farthest reachable regions as well as to the very heart of the Roman Empire to assure that Jesus teachings will be heard by all men.  Indeed, it would seem that His death was the culmination of the mission that He had endeavored, and may be summed up in a few words He had come to earth with the goal of leaving again, after transferring His mission to others (Yancey, 1995, p. 227).

Likewise, Jesus death resulted in the apostles gaining of unquestionable confidence, bravery, and resolve, as can be evidenced in the manner they had preached the Gospel as compared with the seemingly hesitant manner when Jesus was still with them, bodily.  This tremendous effort put forth by the Christian faiths founding leaders resulted in the eventual acceptance of Rome as its official religion, and later paved the way for religious conquests that transformed almost every nation into Christianity.

On the other hand, Prophet Muhammads death in 632 AD had also resulted in the same manner of exponential propagation of the Islam faith.  However, certain unresolved issues regarding the proper succession to the leadership had resulted in the creation of a major division between the Sunnites, which is the majority, and the Shiites, the minority.  Despite of this unfortunate incidence, Islam soon spread its influence across the globe starting in the Middle Ages with Sassanian Empire, which is Persia, the southern Byzantine provinces, and even as far as Spain (History of Islam, 2010, P. 1).  This tremendous growth can be seen today with Islams proliferation in different countries in Asia, the Middle East, Africa, Europe and Americas, such that its members totaled to more than a billion people worldwide (Islam, 2008, p. 1).

Differences in Worship
The very foundation that Jesus teachings suggest, of Him being God-made-man, signifies the manner to which His followers have been worshipping Him.  Being the sole provider of the authority to forgive sins, He then becomes the principal subject from which sinners ask for deliverance.  Thus, it is common to witness images of Jesus in churches, chapels, and even in the homes of those who believe in His divinity.  For a Christian, it is only through Jesus that a person may attain eternal life in heaven.  The importance of Jesus in their spirituality is such that, irrespective of the good deeds that a person may have bestowed, it would be tantamount to nothing if his faith does not reside in Jesus.

This verity was likewise true even to those who were with Him during his earthly ministry.  He was commonly regarded as God one who has power over nature, illnesses, demons, and even death itself, by those who know of His true nature.  Perhaps this has stemmed from the numerous miracles he had performed, which included turning water into wine, calming of a storm, feeding multitudes with only 5 loaves of bread, raising Lazarus back to life, and others.

The Prophet Muhammad, on the other hand, is regarded by the faithful as the only true messenger of the words of God.  Worth noting is the fact that in Muslim beliefs, there had been many messengers, or prophets, over the ages, which included Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, David, and even Jesus (Islam, 2008, p. 1).  Unfortunately, the aforementioned prophets have failed in their missions of delivering to the world, Allahs true message, either by their own shortcomings or by being manipulated by religious authorities after their lifetimes. Thus, Prophet Muhammad is regarded by Muslims not as a God, but as the only true messenger who had been successful in his mission of propagating Allahs words.  Because of this belief, Islam does not have statue, bust, or any image of resemblance to the Prophet Muhammads in all of their mosques.
Christianity and Islam in the Present Era

It certainly seems that Christianity, especially during the second half of the 20th century up to the present, is experiencing a renewed vigor in its mission of propagation.  We have witnessed how numerous churches have sprang-up in almost every community in every city.  Likewise, numerous programs in mass media have proliferated during these past decades, making Christian service a common occurrence on daily T.V. programming.  The Word of God, in accordance to the teachings of Jesus, are also being manifested in various methods in print, such as in booklets containing colorful Biblical illustrations intended for children, fliers informing church community services, advertisements and even thru evangelic tools on the internet, and others.

Perhaps because of what is in direct contradiction to the prevailing reality during the early centuries of Christianity, where there exists only a single authority for the proper dissemination of Jesus Words, Christianity has since exhibited an exponential growth in terms of popularity and acceptance.  The resulting division of delegating evangelical missions seemed to have made this religion greatly beneficial of the resulting outcome.

On the other hand, just as Christianity has been enjoying an increase in its popularity, so too does Islam.  This may be evidenced by their global membership that according to recent estimates, have already reached over a billion people (Islam, 2008, p. 1).  Even in the United States, which is a predominantly-ProtestantChristian nation, estimates of Muslim population have been pegged ranging between 2 to 6 million people (Islam, 2008, p. 1).

Islams ever-increasing popularity likewise is evident in the manner that mosques are being constructed in different countries and in various States in America.  Their propaganda tools, just like with Christian churches, are likewise to be seen everywhere from fliers on the streets, T.V. advertisements, radio, and on the internet.  

Indeed, the very magnitude of success that both Christianity and Islam have exhibited lie on the verity that these two religions were able to withstand and outlive the struggles that accompanied their rise to glory that spanned for over a millennium.  It certainly seems that their founders, Jesus and Prophet Muhammad, were correct in their aspirations of offering mankind a refuge for his troubled soul, at least while still in their mortal embodiments.  The ultimate goal, though, is in choosing the right option that will truly grace ones soul of an everlasting existence with God, in eternity.    

It is one of the most natural fascinations for people.  In todays society that is dominated by technology and science, some would argue that myths do not have any value anymore but considering how long they have survived in tradition, this shows how much they are part of our culture and sense of identity. Jenks (2007) points out that creation myths across cultures reveal that the narratives developed for this purpose often serve as the core of the values and cultural systems or a society. As such, the study of creation myths can provide intimate insights on how culture and societies their unique identities and at the same time show parallelism between other cultures and societies. In Leonard and McClures book Myth  Knowing An introduction to World Mythology, creation myths are considered in a number of approaches that show its richness as a field of study. The creation myths that the book discusses also provides great insights the respective cultures of the stories origins and ultimately, the how culture is molded and in turn influenced by these traditions.

There are a number of theoretical approaches that are used in the study of creation myths. Many of the approaches combine literary criticism, sociology and psychology in analyzing the narratives or traditions for the origin of humanity. One approach, using Folklore Studies and Anthropology is often utilized in cases where authorship of the creation myth is not clear. Often, the approach is used in conjunction with comparative literature studies including non-literary components such as superstitions or customs.  However the approach does not delve into the contrasting elements of creation myth traditions or the meaning of complex symbolisms. At the same time, to be fully effective, a strong background in anthology is often required. For those who do not have a high degree of expertise of experience in social sciences, traditional historical criticism is an alternative approach that can be taken. Studies using the approach consider the myth in wider context evaluating based on accepted historical records or literature that can be associated with the text. In cases where the myth text has no strong historical or literary reference, then analysis can become problematic. However, a common challenge in studying creations myths is that they have generally been oral traditions. In these cases, oral-formula is the common strategy utilized. Scholars however often only utilize these method when the myth predates writing and has not been documented subsequently either.

In the creation myth of Vishnu Parana, creation is through evolution, coming from a void of existence. The tradition is reflects a similarity to the biblical traditions of creation where an omniscient being created the universe from nothing which then evolves to the creation of the world. There is a strong emphasis in spiritually and transcending corporeal existence. This creation myth has been incorporated into Hindu religious traditions and is considered as one of the basis of the development of the philosophical foundation for the establishment of the caste system. In this example, the creation myth does not only explain how the world is created but also provides a rationale to the nature of human interactions and its significance to a spiritual universe. As mentioned, the creation myth of Vishnu Parana creation myth has a lot of similarity to biblical traditions. However in the Genesis creation account, there is an emphasis on the chronology of the creation process which is described to have been completed in seven days. At the same time, the presentation reserves significant responsibility and value on man from the moment of creation with the text stating of man being molded in the image of god and the assertion of his position as the caretaker of Eden, and by implication the rest of the world. However, in the Genesis tradition the fall of man comes after the creation which emphasizes the perfection of the handiwork of the creator of the world.

The need to know who one is and what the reason for ones existence is is a primal need. It is closely linked with an individuals personal  sense of self and purpose. From these two examples, it is clear that creation myths are at the core of how societies and cultures view who they are and the purpose of their existence. As much as the creation myths seem to be disassociated with modern sensibilities, the reality is that the study of these traditions must employ a very scientific approach to ensure that analysis is not colored by ones own personal background or opinions. Regardless of whether one reads creation myths for entertainment of more serious studies, there is no denying that they can stimulate not only the imagination but also intellectual curiosity. In conclusion, the study of creation myths has provided critical insights on human imagination and the development of culture and society and ultimately, how creation myths make them unique and yet familiar to other cultures and societies around the world.

Medicine and healthcare have been practiced based on the established observations and continuous innovations in science and technology. Many have benefited with major progresses and developments in the field of pharmacology, chemistry and other scientific treatment being applied to patients. These have led physicians and healthcare professionals to have their patients be treated with the most appropriate medication in terms of time, cost efficiency and lesser pain experience for the patient.

However, medicine, healthcare and science still have several repercussions on patients wherein traditions, belief and religion greatly matter. Physicians and healthcare professionals have somehow become encouraged to use alternative methods of treatment and medication that would fit and satisfy the need of the patient without compromising the religious doctrines and beliefs that they uphold. In these considerations, a new term and field has been in used today and commonly known as Christian Science. Christian Science has been considering both the established ideas and facts of nature with the acceptance of scientific processes with a relative connection and consideration of religious and biblical beliefs and statements.

Christian scientists, particularly researches, physicians and healthcare professionals who does not just believe in scientific process but also Christian doctrines and beliefs based on biblical accounts, greatly consider several teachings from the bible sacred and cannot override or be applied to some scientific and medical procedures.

Moreover, these Christian Science has created a greater influence too many people nowadays. Members of a religious organization better known as the Jehovahs Witnesses have stronger teachings on medical treatment that will not compromise several biblical teachings.

Founded by Mary Baker Eddy in 1866, Christian Science has established itself later on as the First Church of Christ, Scientist, the CCS or the Christian Science Church. Apart and independent from the Jehovahs Witnesses, the CCS has greater reverence on the spirituality of Man and its universe rather than the diverting it on its material nature. Furthermore, prayer plays a major role on the healing and treatment process of a patient as it serves as a channel to which God may demonstrate a certain healing capacity (Powell, 1909).

Healing occurs to a human being able to reflect within him or herself and expressing it in terms of believing the perfection of his or her being. They also believe that sickness or disease is a product of unwanted emotions such as ignorance, fear and even the sins that an individual incurs. Focusing more on Gods love, kindness and goodness, CCS have been able to address the natural healing process in a more spiritual orientation (CCS, 2002).

Scientifically speaking, the CCS is not entirely biblical literalists such that they regard the material or tangible world as unreal and nonexistent and that science have been acceptable to them regardless of its theories. However, they sometimes tend to object when it comes to detailed and specific descriptions of ailments and diseases as these may have occurred on the mentality of the patient being manifested by the body in the form of symptoms (Eddy, 1934).

These have created CCS and its members a priority on their healing ability before diverting themselves to drugs, surgery and other medical treatment or procedures. They greatly adhere to the examples of Jesus Christ on how biblically diseases have been treated. More focusing on the divine method of healing sickness, sinful acts and even death, the CCS have considered Jesus as their Wayshower and that prayer can cure almost all kinds of physical disorders.

Jehovahs Witnesses, on the other hand, have been strong on their statements and beliefs regarding the ingestion and physical consumption of blood largely based on several biblical accounts. This greatly affects the medical and healthcare treatment being allowed and accepted by the religious organization as well as its members since blood ingestion and consumption have been extended to the facility of blood transfusion. In order to address these concerns, since blood transfusions and other blood-related operations have been necessary and advised by most healthcare professional for most types of blood loss incidence, the organization established the Hospital Information Services in order to educate and facilitate bloodless surgery. Blood and blood transfusion have been further elaborated by the organization such that products and other derivatives from them should not be used for consumption (The Watchtower, 2004).
Furthermore, several medical procedures and treatments, although not doctrinally prohibited, are also not encouraged. These would include blood donation, hemodilution, intraoperative blood salvage, use of heart-lung machine, dialysis, epidural blood patch, plasmapheresis and labeling or tagging (The Watchtower, 2004).

Jehovahs Witnesses greatly encourage the use of bloodless surgery in which most healthcare professionals and surgeons are taking into consideration. Alternative medication and improved pharmacology that can address bloodless treatment have emerged in order to address not just the organizations concern but the needs of other traditionally and culturally diverse patients.

The idea of having and encouraging bloodless surgery has been opened and respected by thousands of healthcare practitioners. However, the problem remains as the organization have led numerous cases of medical emergencies to eventually death by not allowing medical blood transfusion to be conducted. This has been an ongoing issue for human survival such that the organization has been keen in adhering to Gods teachings even if it costs the physical survival of its members.