Religion and Theology

What does Corporate Spirituality nowadays mean It becomes widely popular and is preached by most of the denominations and post-modern churches. It is the essence of the new experimental form of Christianity  the transformative movement which attempts to unify the world under the main altruistic principles of the Gospel. No longer is the strong emphasis made on the Word of God or personal re-birth through the Holy Spirit. The new point is basically is in the collective experience and unifying community service. This process over content basically assumes that anyone who considers himself to be a Christian can accomplish the ministry, because Jesus lives and acts through every believer. As the actual Gospel is mainly ignored here it is not important anymore if you were born again or have a deep knowledge of the Holy Bible.

Before we start speaking about Christian spirituality lets literally explain the meaning of this notion. So what is spirituality Christian spirituality refers to both a lived experience and an academic discipline. In the first instance, the term describes the whole of the Christians life as this is oriented to self-transcending knowledge, freedom, and love in light of the ultimate values and highest ideals perceived and pursued in the mystery of Jesus Christ through the Holy Spirit in the church, the community of disciples. That is to say, spirituality is concerned with everything that constitutes Christian experience, specifically the perception and pursuit of the highest ideal or goal of Christian life, e.g., an ever more intense union with God disclosed in Christ through life in the Spirit. At a second level, Christian spirituality is an academic discipline, increasingly interdisciplinary in nature, which attempts to study religious experience and to promote its development and maturation. Now what is Christian spirituality To be highly a spiritual person within Christian philosophy means not only to be a good, kind person, who doesnt say lies and sometimes helps your mother about the house, but it means to lead a holy life that is described in a Bible on the example of Jesus Christ. The pursuit of holiness, which means becoming more like Christ is a daily task of every believer. While Jesus says Be holly, because I am holy (1 Peter 113-16). When people accept Jesus as their personal Saviour the Holy Spirit becomes to live in them and He guides them in their Christian life. It is considered that once the application is made the person allows Holy Spirit to take full control over hisher life. That means listen to the Spirit, listen to your consciousness and not to the wants of your sinful nature. The Christians also believe this way of living is not produced by self-effort, but the born-again believer receives the Holy Spirit as a Gift from Above. Now lead by the Spirit he will live his life in the accordance with the Word of God- the Bible. The book of Leviticus which is the part of the Old Testament contains the rules of holy living. Given once to the Israelites these laws of Christian morality continue to guide modern Christians in their life with God.

Spirituality comes from Hebrew ruach that has meanings like spirit, breath. So Spirituality is what moves a persons life of faith to the perfection. There exists a certain set of beliefs in Christianity that can be found in Church doctrines originally based on the Holy Bible a certain set of values, which basically are faith, hope, love- that is hope and promise of redemption, love for others, denial of self and a certain way of life, obviously based on all said above, that is the real everyday life that where the Christian beliefs and values are embodied and expressed. So Christian Spirituality is a part of a specific way of life which involves having strong values of Christianity and practicing them in day-to day life.
Bible is the very essence and source of holiness. Some of the basic aspects that demonstrate the holiness of God are He is morally pure (always speaks the truth), He is righteous (he always acts in a just manner), He is merciful (He forgives people their sins), He is loving (because His great love for humanity He gave His only Son to help the people to avid eternal punishment). When a person lives in a manner that is consistent with the will of God, this way of living is called a life of holiness. God requires the people to live a life of holiness All who truly have faith in God follow the way of Holiness (Hebrews 1214).You will receive power when the Holy Spirit comes down on you then you will be my witnesses in Jerusalem, throughout Judea and Samaria, yes, even to the ends of the earth. (Acts 18)

Today, millions of Catholics in more than 115 countries are involved in the Catholic Charismatic Renewal. What accounts for this dramatic growth Those involved in the Renewal say that God has touched them in some profound way, releasing the power of the Holy Spirit in their lives. The goal of the Catholic Charismatic Renewal is to serve the mission of the Church by enabling people to live a renewed and Christian life in the power of the Holy Spirit. Every Christian is called to be charismatic  that is, to be equipped with gifts of service for the good of the Church. (1Cor.12). In the Catholic Charismatic Renewal, Catholics speak of being baptized in the Holy Spirit. This statement does not change the Catholic teaching about the Sacrament of Baptism. It simply means that the power of the Spirit received in the Sacraments of Baptism and Confirmation often awaits a fuller release in the lives of many Christians.

Here Id like to present you some quotations which demonstrate the modern usage of and definition of such notions like the Life of Holiness, the Contemplative Life, the Life of Social Justice, the Charismatic Life, Evangelical Witness,  the Incarnational Life. As you follow them, keep in mind that all these principles of Christian Spirituality have their focus on community service, which is supposed to demonstrate the love of Jesus Christ.

Reading Brian McLarens book, A Generous Orthodoxy, I thought for a moment Hank Kimball had become a theologian. The subtitle gives more than a slight hint as to why it reads like this Why I am a missional  evangelical  postprotestant  liberalconservative  mysticalpoetic  biblical  charismaticcontemplative  fundamentalistCalvinist  AnabaptistAnglican  Methodist  catholic  green  incarnational  depressed-yet-hopeful  emergent  unfinished Christian. If this confuses you, welcome to post-modern Christianity in the age of despair.

 HYPERLINK httpwww.globalaidsprayer.orgindex.phpoptioncontenttaskviewid88 3 Million Voices
3 Million Voices seeks to mobilize an army of faith-filled Christians, of all ages, to live a lifestyle of Prayer  Care  Share directing our efforts collectively toward an end of AIDS and as such serve as a discipleship model for incarnational living. Those who commit to join 3 Million Voices are encouraged to sign the Declaration of Commitment indicating your intention to a lifestyle of Prayer - Care -Share to end AIDS.

Traditionally the Corporate Spirituality is based upon six major dimensions of the spiritual life Contemplative The Prayer-Filled Life Holiness The Virtuous Life Charismatic The Spirit-Empowered Life Social Justice The Compassionate Life Evangelical The Word-Centered Life and Incarnational The Sacramental Life (Renovar). All these principles of Holiness and Spirituality were practiced by Jesus Christ. To analyze further let me explain first what Holiness is. Holiness  the state or quality of being holy.

Today we will look at the Incarnational Tradition, and what it means to live a sacramental or incarnational life. Richard Foster says, The Incarnational Stream of Christian life and faith focuses upon making present and visible the realm of the invisible spirit. This sacramental way of living addresses the crying need to experience God as truly manifest and notoriously active in daily life. I believe that the incarnational life can help us to avoid our modern temptations to over spiritualize Gods work, and to forget that Gods love is concrete and real and active in
real people who live real lives. God weeps with weeping people, and celebrates with us
when we are rejoicing. And God sent Jesus as the ultimate object-lesson, to show us that
the realm of human life could be lived by one who was also divine. In Jesus Christ, we
see Gods Word made flesh, and we understand that Gods love for us is real and
incarnate. The question it raises for us is how well we are living an incarnational life. Do
we tend to separate our spiritual and religious life from the life we live at work, the life
we live at home, the life we live with our families and the way we spend our money
How would any of that relate to my church life And how about the life we live at
college

Parents and teenagers need not always argue about issues that are manageable.  The key to managing these issues is in understanding each others position and in finding a middle-way solution.  If we can aim for a win-win solution, that would be best, but many times it may not be possible.  So, adjusting our wants with regards to the others position may be necessary to solve our problems.  Let us take the issues of friends, money and school for example.  If we try to understand the problems facing each side, from the teenager and from the parents, we can try to negotiate our way to a solution.

First, many teenagers today have friends that parents disagree with, but both sides can work on a solution.  Proverbs 1824 says, A man of too many friends comes to ruin, but there is a friend who sticks closer than a brother (New American Standard Bible).  The teenager has to understand that quality friends are more important than quantity.  Bad company may lead to drug abuse, alcoholism, pre-marital sex, unwanted pregnancies and other consequences that are life-and-death situations.  It is important then to choose our friends wisely and to refrain from others who are bad influences on us.  So how do we choose our friends  Or how do we know that they are truly our real friends  Proverbs 1717 asserts that A friend is always loyal, and a brother is born to help in time of need (New Living Translation).  If our so-called friends are only there when we have money or if we are in good health or if we have a nice car and a beautiful house, then they are not our friends.  A true friend will be there for you even in sickness, homelessness and poverty.  Of course, parents also have to understand that nothing is perfect and that these ideals may not be realized all the time because of actual, instead of theoretical circumstances.  So parents have to give their teenagers some room for error and imperfection.  By learning from their mistakes, they will become better adults later.

Second, many teenagers nowadays want more money, which their parents dont have, so we need to find creative solutions to solve it.  In 1 Timothy 610, it is mentioned that the love of money is a root of all kinds of evil. Some people, eager for money, have wandered from the faith and pierced themselves with many griefs (New International Version).  Money is needed to satisfy many physical desires, but too many desires will lead to suffering.  It is important to extinguish the flames of desire through moderation. If we dont really need something, we dont have to possess it.  We also need to be wise with our money through investments and diligent work.  By finding part-time work and learning how to invest our savings properly, a teenager will learn good financial skills that he will need later as an adult.  As Matthew 2518 mentions, we should not dig a hole in the ground and hide the masters money (New Living Translation) even if we have only a little of it.  We should invest it, and we can also find some work to earn more money that we can additionally invest.  We should also not have sudden cravings to splurge once we have a lot of money.  In Proverbs 7 20, a prodigal man took lots of money with him and wont be home for a couple of weeks (Gods Word Translation).   Instead, we should learn how to control our emotions.  Being wasteful in our expenditures will empty our bank account.  Lastly, we should also be generous. As Exodus 2225 says, If you lend money to one of my people among you who is needy, do not be like a moneylender charge him no interest (New International Version).  By learning how to give, we will receive payment in kind later on in the form of respect, the return of favors and other non-quantifiable intangible forms that we will appreciate later.

Lastly, teenagers may need to confront their parents about their problems in school.  Grades are one of the major problems that teenagers face in school.  Low marks could be a consequential problem due to bad friends or the lack of money to buy learning resources.  If our problem with friends and money are resolved, then we can solve our issues in school also.  But sometimes, the cause may be something else.  If our ancestors were not so bright themselves, then we shouldnt expect too much on ourselves.  Or if we take some mental aptitude tests, and we score poorly, we may be faced with a biological problem that requires specialized training.  But more often than not, we can improve our brain power through proper nutrition, exercise and mental conditioning.  There are many books and courses in the market that will teach us on how to increase our mental aptitude.  So, it may be necessary to purchase a few for the benefit of our future.  But parents should also consider that school and grades are not everything.  Jesus himself was very learned, but he did not bother to prove his academic excellence by getting a respected degree from a well-known school.  In John 715 the Jews were surprised and said, How has this man got knowledge of books He has never been to school (Bible in Basic English).  Indeed, school is not the only place to learn and thus, school grades are not the only proof of learning.  While some people may be God-gifted, more often than not, many people learn from the School of Hard Knocks.  Truly, there are many successful people today, such as Bill Gates, who never finished college.

In the end, teenagers are not always wrong and parents are not always right.  When a proper middle-ground is reached between the two, there is peace.

Global warming is one of the most important environmental issues being faced globally. Along with this an importance of natural resources especially water is under consideration as most of the water resources are now contaminated.  Thereby an important of these issues is important especially water conservation and this paper will highlight teachings of Islam that highlight water conservation.

It is mentioned by Dien, and Izz al-Din, (2000) that Islam is a universal religion and no problem in the life of humankind is unaddressed by Islam. Importance of water conservation is embedded in Islam. Quran and Sunnah both highlight an importance of water conservation and show different ways of water conservation. It is realized that important roles are played by religions in societies. Water has been given an utmost importance in Islam, as water is an important part of Islam. Many water conservation awareness campaigns have been started that highlight importance of water. These campaigns have been based on Islamic principles and rules of water conservation thereby these campaigns have been very successful. These awareness campaigns started in different Muslim countries of the world, prove to be beneficial and successful. Islamic communication channels have been used by these campaigns to talk about water conservation to increase awareness in people.

It has been mentioned by Dyke, (2008) that Islam is a religion that originated from Arabian Peninsula, which is a desert area spreading to other important arid and semi arid areas. As a result of this, water has found its importance in Islam. Water scarcity has an importance for Muslims that has influenced their perceptions of water and its importance in addition to shaping their behaviors and customs that relate to water conservation. Since the last twenty years, Islam and Islamic rules and principles have been used to influence believes of water conservation in people and across different countries.
Llamas, (2009) argues that perceptions of water in Islam is not colossal thereby the beliefs held by Muslims in regards to water are very much influenced by different historical events. In addition, these beliefs are also strengthened by the studies and teachings of Islam that are present in Quran.

Water in Quran
Numerous verses in Quran teach and highlight the importance of water in Islam. Holy verses highlight that water is one of the major themes in Islamic cosmogony and iconography. Water is also an important topic in daily life of a Muslim and liturgy. Here it needs to be mentioned that the Arabic word M  means water and it has appeared more than sixty times in Quran.

Sura of the Prophets has quoted the importance of water stating
We made from water every living thing (2130)
In Quran, water has been defined as a gift of god from which the whole humanity can benefit. It is stated in Sura of the Ant
Or, who has created the heavens

And the earth, and who sends you down water from the sky Yea, with it we cause to grow well-planted orchards full of beauty of delight it is not in your power to cause the growth of the trees in them. Can there be another god besides Allah (27, 60).

Water in Sunnah
Importance of water has been highlighted in Sunnah. One of the famous hadith of Last Prophet (PBUH) states that

Men are co-owners in three things water, fire and pastures.
Faruqui, Biswas, Bino, and International Development Research Centre (Canada), (2001) argue that there are other hadith that discuss ownership of water as well an amount of water that  is allowed for use by an individual thereby saving it from wastage. Excessive use of water resources has been prohibited in Islam. Moreover, many hadith provide measures to save water from contamination and pollution by mentioning that urination and defecation is to be avoided in water resources as these cab be one of the most important precautionary measure that can avoid disease spread. Human activities are to be avoided on buffer zones around water thereby avoiding any corruption of water body.
Holy prophet (PBUH) has urged the mulish community to save water rather than pollute it  or contaminate it.

One hadith appears in Sunan Ibn Majah,Vol 1, p. 34,
It has been narrated on the authority of Hadhrat Abdullah bin Umar (May Allah be well pleased with both of them), that the Holy Prophet(PBUH)passed by a person performing wuzu. He(PBUH)said Do not waste (water), do not use more water than you need it.

Thereby from this hadith it can be realised that wasting water and using it beyond the needs is declared Makruh of undesirable. this has been highlighted by yet another HAdith that appears in Hashiya Al Tahtahawi, p. 80 Using more water than what is reasonable is Makruh.

Water and the Shariah
Shariah is a set of jurisdictions in Islam that are to be followed by all Muslims. The Shariah argues about water conservation and water management and it has defined a set of norms for water management. Every Muslim has been given the right to quench his or her thirst by drinking water and this right has been equally bestowed to animals. People have been given rights to irrigate their crops. However, Shariah highlights preference of water usage domestically as compared to irrigation or in industries. Thereby there are rules that define usage and management of water in a sensible manner avoiding its wastage as its use is every Muslims right.

Tadgell, (2008) mentions that based on these rules, water conservation programs have been started based on Islamic rules highlighting an importance of water conservation as Islam realizes the importance of water scarcity since Muslims have faced water scarcity in their past.

Islam says that water, if available in lesser amounts or in greater amounts is to be saved at all costs. Thereby not only Muslims are bound to follow the teachings and instructions of Islam but all people globally are to realize the fact that water is to be saved and conserved.

It is mentioned by Dyke, (2008) that additional orders have been given by Islam in order to save water. In extreme and exceptional circumstances like war, Islam says that water and other necessities of life are not to be harmed in any way. Islam has given water the same importance as has been bestowed to educational institutions, people, Children, women, elder citizens in a community and it has been said that as these are not to be targeted in any war, in the same way water and any water resources are not to be harmed.

Conclusion
Religions are the base of beliefs in people and these shape up the major decisions taken by people related to certain issues. Major health concern these days relates to water pollution thereby a need of addressing this issue in a religious perspective is needed. These days it is important that public awareness campaigns are started on a global scale that can address the health related issues in regards to water conservation and water pollution. These issues are important as these days water pollution is increasing and is highly sensitive issue.

Religious intolerance occurs when a section of people cannot put up with the religious beliefs and cultures of a certain group of people. This is usually manifested in many ways especially when this said group of people believes that their religious beliefs are superior to the other groups. The history of religious intolerance dates back in history to the time when missionaries started venturing into different places in the world in search of new believers and to spread the gospel. They ventured into areas that had a near uniform set of beliefs and thus had to introduce another aspect of religion that the natives had not been accustomed to. In one way or the other, some people got to be converted but others remained true to their religious beliefs that had been there before. The further incursion by other missionaries and other people with different beliefs led to people of different religions living in the same regions.

Nigerias population constitutes of many religions. A half of the population is Muslim and nearly 40 of the remaining is Christian. The remaining 10 percent is covered by the other religions including African traditional-based religious regimes. The division of this population is such that the Northern part of the country is mostly Islamic while the Southern part is covered by the Christians and the other religious groups. At the onset of democracy when Olusegun Obasanjo was elected democratically, there was tension amongst those who were defeated in the elections who thus decided to use religion to divide the population. The Northern states adopted the Sharia laws which are known to be less tolerant of secular lifestyles. Therefore, the first cause of religious intolerance in Nigeria was politically instigated. As at the year 2004, eleven of the states in the Northern region had adopted aspects of the Sharia laws that were used to punish wrong-doers.

Nigeria is known as one of the most endowed countries in Africa in terms of oil and natural gas. The petroleum resources are prospected by foreign countries such as Canada. The oil is mainly found in the Niger delta. The Niger Delta is located in the Southern part of the country. The resource is poorly distributed and has sparked a lot of inter-religion violence as most of the religious groups are led by their leaders to lay claim to the resource (ONeill 1) (Nigerian Oil Curse of the Black Gold). Due to the large numbers of Muslim and Christian faithful, the war has always pitted them against each other. This has usually resulted in the deaths of so many civilians and even police as the confrontations are usually very violent. The fight for resources has also been very evident in the Northern region. It is instigated by the now famous religious group going by the name Boko Haram (Isilow 1) (Religious Intolerance in Nigeria 1). The group claims to be operating for the good of Islam. Due to the largely Islamic Northern part of the country following Sharia laws, the group has appointed itself as the legitimate enforcers of this law. Its violent activities have resulted in the attacking of buildings, housing, armed forces like the police and other government installations.

There seemed to be a crisis in leadership in the country as there were too many coups mainly staged by the military. This led to the citizens having very little faith in the governments. As a result, many people were poor. To fight back, many went back to their tribal and religious enclaves as zones of comfort. The religious debacle was thus amplified by this. Every other person seemed to blame people of other faiths for the failed leadership. As a result, many violent confrontations have been witnessed (Adam and Keffi 1) (Towards Ethnic and Religious Tolerance within a United and Diverse Nigeria 1). Currently, the president who is Muslim by faith is ill, but the largely Northern region does not want him to be replaced by the vice president who is Christian. Goodluck Jonathan, the vice president, is keen on the leadership and would like to ascend to presidency.

The colonial powers that were present in Nigeria put up systems that divided the nation along religions. For instance, western education was first available to regions that were dominantly from one religion. This created a one-sided spectacle so that some Christians could not access this education. As such, the classes became breeding ground for tension and misinformation (Rosalind 1) (Conflict in the Classroom Educational Institutions as Sites of Religious ToleranceIntolerance in Nigeria 1). It is therefore prudent that we see ignorance and poverty as the main causes of the religious intolerance that has led to violence in Nigeria. Violence attributed to religion has been the cause of very many unwarranted deaths and if education was used to reduce the ignorance, the violence would not be as significant as it is now.  

To reduce the violence and create peace between the religions, peacemakers have been self-appointed. They tour the warring regions and issue teachings of peace. During the tour, they look out for the possible ways through which the people can be brought together. They then convene meetings where they admonish the crowds to use peace and unity to propagate togetherness. This has been an important method of cooling tempers and reducing retaliations especially in the Northern regions (Kuchinsky 1) (Peace from Below Recent Steps Taken along the Track-Two Diplomacy Path 45).  A means of solving the violent confrontations as put forward by the president of Libya Muammar Gaddafi was to divide the nation into a Muslim and a Christian one so that they become two separate states. He later said that it should be divided like Yugoslavia. This is not a very feasible method though as resources will still be a point that can spark violence. In as much as they will be divided into regions or countries, they might not live in peace.

Inter-religious forums have been initiated by some of those affected by the violence so that they can create awareness about the importance of peace. A case in point is that of two men from each side of the warring factions who put aside their differences to bring about peace after losing close family members in the violence (Fischer-Thompson 1) (Muslim-Christian Dialogue Forum Works for Change in Nigeria. 3). Wuye and Ashafa address forums where they urge the people from both camps to dump violent methods of confrontations that result in deaths. They urge for dialogue amongst everyone so that amicable solutions can be achieved for lasting peace. The media has also been used as a means of addressing the violence. The country recognizes the power of the media and has required that as a means to end the violence, the media houses become more responsible in disseminating important reconciliatory messages to the masses. This has proved to be effective as more and more people are starting to realize the issue at hand.

In conclusion, religious tolerance is a thing that has been experienced in many countries in the world. A keen look at the causes points towards ignorance as the main cause of inability to view other peoples religious beliefs as equal or similar. It is backed up by the use of religion by politicians to incite the people when they need to. Poverty has been the influencing factor as most of those recruited to fight these wars are poor people who can be easily manipulated to believe in what they are told. The violence caused by the intolerance has been addressed through various means but top on the list is creation of awareness that has been effective in passing the message that religious beliefs held by whichever groupings are neither superior nor inferior. The end-result is that more and more people are slowly becoming tolerant to other peoples beliefs. The use of media to inform the masses has so far been very vital as it reaches more people at a go than any other means. Religious intolerance should not be encouraged as it only infringes the rights of people to worship.

An Analysis of Stephen Stein s  America s Bible Canon, Commentary, and Community
Stephen Stein s  America s Bible  discusses the expansion of what he refers to as the  bible category  in America (169). Stein argues that the expansion of the category is a result of a scriptualizing process, which involves (1) the specification of a canon, (2) commentary on this canon, and the (3) communal acceptance of this commentary (182). He divides his discussion into four parts, which traces the expansion and evolution of the bible category in American culture. In line with this, the following discussion extrapolates on Stephen Stein s observations and arguments as it is presented in the above mentioned text.
 
It is important to note at the onset the foundational assumptions of Stein s discussion. Although Stein does not explicitly provide a specific philosophical perspective that underlies his discussion, it is apparent that he adheres to a social constructivist framework. The framework conceives the concept  social  as  a phenomenon that involves   a plurality of human agents whose actions or plans are somehow mutually related  (Collins 5). Social constructivism assumes that reality is an amalgamation of social facts (Collins 14). Social facts here refer to concepts generated  by social consensus, by description, or by conceptualization  (Collins 14). Due to the collective s role in the process of generating social facts and hence social reality, one may infer that the creation process is embedded with power relations. Such is the case since the acceptance of a fact requires collective agreement regarding both its meaning and its object. Such being the case, reality thereby is a product of beliefs created and propagated by institutions of power. Within this context, social institutions are human inventions. Their existence requires collective human effort in terms of collectively believing that these institutions exist, have certain tasks to perform, are authorized and justified to perform them, and individuals within the social sphere or within these institutions are warranted in believing them. Human inventions thereby become the basis for the formation of certain beliefs. In addition, human inventions are also the basis for the expansion of the meanings associated to the fundamental concepts or objects in a particular social institution.

In the case of Stein s discussion, he emphasizes the different aspects involved in the expansion of the concept  bible  in the Christian religion. The review of literature in his article shows that the continuous expansions of the meanings associated with the concept  bible  may be traced to its association with other American cultural concepts whose evolution and redefinition relied on the  bible  to gain its own credence. He states,  In America the category  bible  enjoys a privileged cultural position   It appears that the term  bible  has lost all specificity of reference. You may choose to call anything a  bible  if you imply that it contains authoritative, necessary, and inclusive information or guidance  (Stein 169). In the American culture, the objects associated to the concept  bible  have thereby expanded beyond the term s original referent in the Catholic religion. This manifests not only the Catholic religion s great influence in American culture but also American culture s reinterpretation of the elements within the Catholic religion. In line with this, Stein claims that his discussion aims to perform the following task,

To explore the ways in which American have created their own bibles through the process of manipulating the canon of sacred scriptures or writing commentary on it. In doing so, they have also contributed directly to the fortunes of particular religious communities and indirectly to the expansion and transformation of the category  bible.  (169)

Re-translating his specified aim within the context of social constructivism, Stein s article thereby traces the evolution and expansion of a social fact, that being the authoritative character of the bible, in American culture. In addition, he also traces how the evolution and expansion of this social fact affected other religious institutions as can be seen in his emphasis on the role of the authoritative character of the Christian Bible to the Mormons, the Shakers, and the Seventh-Day Adventists to name a few of the religions he specified in his analysis.

Within the text, Stein implicitly specifies that in order to understand the expansion of the bible category it is necessary to consider the manner in which it has been assessed in scholarly literature. The assessment of the bible category, according to Stein, has undergone the initial emphasis on the object s history followed by its comparison with other objects in its category (170-183). This observation is based on his review of the literature regarding the Bible from 1985 until the year of the article s publication. He points out several observations from the development in the literature regarding the Bible. First, initial discussions of the Bible s content focused on its role in American culture (Stein 170). He states that the initial texts regarding the Bible assume that  The Bible  has been nearly omnipresent  in this nation s history  (Stein 170). Second, later discussions regarding the Bible focused on its role in a religious community (Stein 171). He notes that these texts focus on the  Critical role played by religious communities in the construction and reception of scriptures  (Stein 171). The discussion of the bible category in literature thereby showed a shift of focus from a singular object, that being the Christian Bible, to the category of the initial object, that being the scripture category. It is important to note that there is a distinction between the bible category and the scripture category. In the article, he adheres to Wilfred Smith s contextual definition of a scripture that claims

Being scripture is not a quality inherent in a given text, or type of text, so much as it is an interactive relation between that text and a community of persons. In other words, we need a religious community in order to have scripture. Smith maintains that scripture is a bilateral term, one that necessarily involves a relationship. Scripture is scripture only insofar as it is recognized and understood as such by a given community. Texts without such an interactive group are mere texts, ancient texts perhaps, or even modern texts, but not scripture. (Stein 171)

In Stein s discussion, the bible category exists as a social construct within American culture whereas the scripture exists as a social construct that is applicable to all religions within different cultures. In other words, one may state that the bible category is in itself an object within the scripture category. Such is the case since the expansion of the former required the actualization of the scriptualizing process, which entails the association of authority to a religious institution by means of its members  acceptance of its beliefs. He notes the role of the scriptualizing process in the growth of the Mormon religion and the decline of the Shakers (Stein 173-174).

Within this context, Stein s discussion emphasizes the role of individuals in creating and maintaining a specific religious belief. He observes that in order to create and strengthen a religious institution, it is necessary to include a  canon, commentary, and community  (Stein 182). In the case of the religious institutions that developed from the bible category, the canon is the Christian Bible, the commentary is given by those who participate in the new religion, and the community reinforces the social beliefs heralded by the commentators in the new religion.

Stein s discussion manifests the social character of religious institutions as well as religious beliefs. He shows that ultimately the similarity of all religious institutions lie in their dependence on their community. In this sense, the differences in the various Churches can be accounted for in terms of each religious institution s construction of its institutional beliefs and truths.  Using Searle s logical structure of institutional reality, that is,  We accept, acknowledge, recognize, go along with, etc., that (S has power (S does A))  or its abbreviated form  We accept (S has power (S does A)) (111).The power of S is dependent on the function of S within the institution. In this sense, the interpretation of a biblical text within each religious institution ought to be understood to be dependent on its function within the institution. If such is the case, it follows that any interpretation of the Biblical text stands in relation to the institution in which the text is understood or interpreted. The reason for this lies in the dependence of meanings within the spheres of power in which such meanings are generated.

At first glance, such an account for the formation of religious beliefs and religious truths becomes problematic for religious institutions since it contradicts the universal aspect of such beliefs. However, as Hermans notes, the social construction of meanings should not be seen as enabling the dogmatic characterization of religious beliefs (114). According to Hermans,  Social constructionism is useful because it stresses the transforming power of dialogue  (I)t opens a dialogue between differing religious voices within society  (114). Stein s discussion thereby not only allows one to have a deeper understanding of the biblical category in American culture since it also allows us to have a deeper understanding of the communal aspect that unites all religious institutions. Religion thereby is not merely a dialogue with the divine since it is also a dialogue between men.

Four views on hell, basically tries to reveal the notions on hell, whether hell is everlasting or if it is just momentary (as how most want it to be).  The life after this life as described in the Bible, as grave, pit, hell or to heaven, according to ones deeds, has always seemed unclear and quiet disturbing to human minds. Sheol is the principal term used to refer the life after life. The uncertainty as to how Sheol should be interpreted in the Old Testament led to the extensive debate carried on by William G. T. Shedd with Charles Hodge. Shedds dogmatic theology debated a great length the meaning of Sheol in his discussion on the intermediate state. One of the reason to have developed these views are the thoughts of humans that keep lingering as to how, God with His righteous grace and ending love show great anger and cause damnation of the wicked to eternal punishment.  The author tries to unfold the notions that people live in and want to believe in, and, of the revelation of the Bible which speaks of hell being an eternal entity.  The book provides enlightenment giving scriptural references along with the perspectives of the worldly ignorance.
     
FOUR VIEWS ON HELL

The first is the orthodox view, which follows the scriptural approach and defines hell as something where the sinners and the nonbelievers are thrown in and the suffering is everlasting.  It strictly agrees to hell being a forever punishment for the sin-bound, defining peoples attitude towards reaching the place.  The Bible clearly says that Jesus is the way, truth and the life, without Him there is death.  And regarding those who know the truth and refuse to believe and act ignorant, have a predilection in going hell.  The Bible even reveals how hell would be like and how miserable and painful the condition of an individual would be when he goes there it describes hell to be some place where the pain is so dreadful that no one has ever experienced before.  As opposed to how heaven is, as none has ever experienced such beauty before.  The literal view follows the punishment of the wicked being everlasting and there is no redemption.
   
The second being the metaphorical view, which is less specific and non literal but has many people following it.  This view however agrees to no redemption to the wicked and that they wouldnt be allowed to the place of eternity, it is vague and uncertain.
   
The third is the purgatorial view, the ones of the Roman Catholic views, where it talks about an intermediary place called the purgatory, where the wicked are cleansed and washed from their sins and are redeemed to go to heaven.  It however suggests that everyone have to face the purgation and will be judged for their un-confessed sins and are inflicted.  And says that purgation precedes the place of grace
   
The fourth and last view is the conditional or the temporary, which suggests hell being temporary and the suffering only for a period, the wicked are redeemed and eventually everyone is saved. It lessens the severity of the everlasting punishment.

CRITICAL INTERACTION WITH THE AUTHORS WORK

The author in the book shows different ideas of Hell taking the world, the intellectuals and parables from the Bible, an individuals approach and the Scripture as a whole, into consideration.  The book to some extent might be vague in its conclusion but to conclude wasnt the authors objective.If you have ever wondered about the doctrine of hell, and what the Bible really teaches about it, thenFour Views on Hell edited by William Crockett might be just what you need to read.The author had put down the possible ways in describing duration of suffering in hell.  Many people including some of the Christians wouldnt agree on the concept of hell being forever even though it is in the Bible. They would prefer following either the purgatorial or conditional view for the fact that no living creature would want to know the extent of suffering be forever.
   
If the doctrine of eternal punishment was clearly and unmistakably taught in every leaf of the Bible, and on every leaf of all the Bibles in the world, I could not believe a word of it. I should appeal from these misconceptions of even the seers and the great men to the finite and eternal Good, who only God is and who only on such terms could be worshipped.

So there is a tendency on agreeing to non-literal views and raising a hope that the given life is not the final test for eternity.  Four views on hell, was mainly made to create an awareness of the perception of hell, and the author seems to have made the point.  The book doesnt show his pick but gives out the various possibilities of how life after this life can be. The book also talks about many theologians who believe in eternal punishment and who do not.  Variations in understanding the duration and extent of everlasting punishment have occupied Christian theologians for century, including the Jewish and Christian theologians before the time of Christ. Some like R. H.  Savage are even willing to deny the scriptures.

As the Old Testament describes as the life after life as sheol, uncertainty of which lead to an extensive debate between William G.T. Shell and Charles Hodge. Charles Hodge, a contemporary of William G.T. Shedd, did not find the two-compartments theory of Sheol in the Old Testament incompatible with the Scriptures. He wrote Sheol is represented as general receptacle or abode of departed spirits, who were there in the sate of unconsciousness some in the state of misery and others in the state of happiness. In all these ideas the pagan idea of hades corresponds to the scriptural idea of sheol.

But the fact is, truth doesnt change, it remains the same irrespective of human beliefs. God is fair and just, if His love to His believers is so abundant and pure so would also His anger be extreme and unbearable.  The Bible says no one can bear Gods anger, it is that crucial.  Yet God with His abundant grace is willing to forgive His people for their sins when asked for forgiveness during the course of life that He has given.  It is as clear as crystal that the fire and the suffering in hell is for ever. In Matthew 2541, Mark 941 the fire is described as eternal. Jesus spoke describing His followers and the non believers,  they will go away to eternal punishment, but the righteous to eternal life.  It is to our understanding that the Bible lets us know only the things that are important and the ones not revealed or not much concentrated on are the ones to be comprehended as those that one can be lived without knowing.  So its up to ones own discernment.  The Bible clearly says that it is the matter of choice, if one chooses to follow Jesus and has decided to give hisher life to Him, then one chose the eternal life.  And its a free will, there is no force involved, it is your life and how you choose to live, but one is let known of the consequences priorly.  Human mind has developed itself in a way that what ever suits best is considered to be real for an individual and we keep to living with that.  Belief is something that comes by faith and is not conditional, it involves believing wholly.  But the world is always after picking up the suitable ones, those that fit in, and leaving the unfit. If it is not apt, then discard, thats how it goes.  When you believe there is a God above, existing, and that He has revealed things, things we are supposed to know, then why back off with few.  Many say that we believe in God and that Hes word is revealed through the Bible but they say that it is only a part of the Bible that we believe in.  The scripture as whole is not what we want to be believe, we only want we believe what we want to.  So here goes, the views on hell.
 
An apologist, given a chance, would rather want to make a good use of the book by spreading the truth, but since the author has written it in terms of the peoples perception, the book has come out to his expectations.  It is informative suggesting a varied opinion of people.  But one cant find what hell is all about by reading it since there is no description of hell. Four views on hell is not one of the offending type to non believers an atheist as such wouldnt mind reading it, as it doesnt concentrate in letting people know of their ignorance it rather just focuses on disclosing the speculations and views of many people yet in a non confusing way. The meaning of the book can be taken in various aspects but ultimately its the individual belief which comes to play.  One can either understand the truth, accept and it and willingly try to follow it or can one just hear it from one ear and let it out from the other. But the book does make one think about how unclear things can get because of the skepticism. That again depends on how people take the book to be.  The reader would always find it appealing in knowing the views one hell, the book having a good reference does make it worth reading.

CONCLUSION
The book as such is informative suggesting the varied opinion people have, it doesnt conclude with a final answer nor does the author share his point of view. The author tries to shows the ignorance of people in various aspects of the book. One can understand that Bible is the only way to go, which provides sufficiently enough knowledge in understanding the eternal suffering yet somehow many refuse to believe in it. Though many of the intellectuals still find it difficult to gain conviction completely towards the Bible but that doesnt mean the truth would change.  During the time when Jesus came to earth, it was the Pharisees and the scholars, those having known the Bible, were the ones to doubt in Jesus being the Christ.  So it explains that it is not through worldly knowledge one will get to understand the truth, in fact the wise doubt in everything there is and trust almost nothing without the proof.  The fisherman and the amateurs were Jesus disciples they trusted Him with all their hearts without any doubts.  It goes the same way, we are always after wanting to find out little more or trying to disclose something else but fail to put in that trust.  Instead of running around one can always stop to think that heshe can try doing things that could lead them towards the eternal life like having faith in The Word and trusting God with His works.  With all these same saying having heard them all before, one can just give it a try and find out the truth and the truth will set free, and then knowing or not knowing things wont matter any more because one would eventually find the purpose to life.

Hinduism is the oldest living religion in the world, which is why its followers who are generally referred to as Hindus, call it the eternal religion or sanatama dharma (Woodhead, 2002, p.15). Hinduism is the primary indigenous religion of South Asia and is composed of practices, beliefs and socio-religious institutions of Hindus from India, Sri Lanka, Nepal and Bali in Indonesia (Dogra et al., 2003, p.5) Hinduism is different from monotheistic, panentheistic, theistic and monistic systems because it is not a single belief system, but a combination of all, which means Hindus worship gods in different forms. Hinduism has numerous sacred traditions and beliefs, which are closely tied to the history and social structure of the Hindu society.

Among the many societal and cultural influences that make Hinduism vital to Hindu society is the caste system, which is founded on the Hindu belief in reincarnation. A persons caste determines his marriage partner, occupation, and many other opportunities and responsibilities in his life. Castes compose a hierarchy based on the four varnas mentioned in the Veda, the sacred text of Hinduism (Woodhead, 2002, p. 20). The four castes are the Brahmins who are scholars and priests, the Kshatriyas who are rulers and warriors, the Vaishyas who are merchants, and the Shudras who are servant surfs. There are also law books today that recognize a fifth caste called the vana or untouchables. Since each group is considered a separate entity, intermarriage is strictly prohibited between castes (Hall, 2004, p. 79).

There have been many reformers that attempted to abolish the caste system, but many Hindus have time and again vehemently refused such action because they believe that a persons life on earth is a direct consequence of his deeds in his past life. Hindus believe that a person rightfully deserves to be in his present caste because his past deeds or karma resulted in his present life. In fact, there is even a local caste council that regulates the caste system, so that no one crosses over to anothers caste since this is interpreted to be an act of interference with gods will. The council makes sure that the person who does is harshly penalized for breaking the rules.

Hinduism has been shaped by various historical forces, among which is the geography of the land of its origin itself. Natural features such as rivers, woodlands and oceans may be considered holy by Hindus, as well as man-made structures like family shrines, temples, and other places of pilgrimage. One of the most special natural places for Hindus is the Himalayas, which they believe to be the home of the gods of the Hindu pantheon (Bowen, 1998, p. 231). Mountains are traditionally special to Hindus. In fact, man-made temples, such as the Kailasa Temple in Ellora, are designed based on the gradual ascending pattern of a mountain range.

One of the most central sacred beliefs of Hindus is reincarnation. According to Hindu tradition, reincarnation repeatedly happens until a persons soul has resolved all experiences and learned all the lessons in life the material world has to offer. While the soul is immortal, it does evolve from an immature form into a spiritually illuminated form. When a soul finally liberates itself from earthly existence, it attains moksha. Once the soul is finally liberated, it continues to exist but it doesnt enter a physical body anymore. As evidence of reincarnation, many Hindus usually refer to people who claim they remember their past lives.

Hindus believe that after a persons death, his soul leaves his physical body. The soul then occupies a subtle body referred to as the astral body while in a non-physical dimension called the astral plane. The soul continues to have experiences while in this state until it is reborn in a physical body as an infant. Based on a familys potential to fulfill its requirements for moksha, the soul chooses which family it will be reborn into. The cycle of reincarnation only stops when the soul has reaches enlightenment by freeing itself from its earthly existence.

Power, magic and godly interventions are all aspects of Hindu beliefs and traditions. The Atharvaveda, the last book of the Vedas, contains a collection of hymns from the Rig Veda, as well as magic spells for everyday life. These magic spells are supposed to help Hindu people get by their lives through the help of various gods they believe in. For instance, one magic spell to make a horse run swifter from the Atharvaveda reads, Swift as the wind be thou, O steed, when joined (to the chariot) at Indras urging go, fleet as the mind (Bloomfield, 2004, p. 101)
 
Hindus practice a plethora of ritual practices that vary widely based on factors such as region, deity, gender, caste and social status. They generally follow the lunar calendar which is filled with different rituals for different occasions. For example, Puja, a ritual performed on various occasions to glorify the gods, may consist of meditation, prostrations, chanting, food offerings austerity and reading of the holy text of Veda (Rinehart, 2004, p. 123)

There are different ways to perform rituals, and these can be performed individually or as a group. For example, a Hindu family may start their day with puja at home to venerate their deities. The puja may be as simple as offering incense and flower to deities, or they may have up sixteen different offerings similar to a temple puja. Because of this, a Hindu home is usually designed to accommodate a puja, usually equipped with spacious floors where members of the family could sit together and worship their gods.

Natural objects found in the environment also play an important role in the practice of Hinduism. Thus, aside from worshipping deities in human form, some Hindus also worship stones and trees for they believe that deities may reside in such things (Hall, 2004, p.179). Deities may also dwell in man-made structures, like the deity Kali who is supposed to live in Hindu cemeteries. The importance of the environment to Hindu ritualistic traditions can also be seen in the practice of bathing in sacred rivers such as Yamuna and Ganges. According to Hindus, water is a substance that absorbs and washes away impurities. Therefore, water from these sacred bodies clears away the transgressions of people. Unfortunately, religious practices like this may pollute rivers since hundreds of people may bathe at the same time.

The intimate connection of Hindus to their environment is also rooted in their belief of Brahman, the main god of Hinduism. All people, creatures, trees, stones, stars, and everything that exists come from Brahman, which is why Hindus rarely refer to Brahman as god but rather, It. Everything in the world and in the universe is part of Brahman and therefore sacred. Such beliefs in the equality of god and nature have led some analysts to categorize Hinduism as pantheism.

Like Muslims who have a religious duty to visit the sacred city of Mecca, Hindus also have a religious duty to visit places of pilgrimage. Followers of Hinduism are known to go on long, painful journeys to places they consider holy. It is believed that going to pilgrimage sites cleanses away a persons past sins, and makes his future life after death better. In fact, many believe that the harder the journey is the more spiritual merit a person gets.

In India where Hinduism is the main religion of the population, wayside shrines dot the cities. These wayside shrines usually come in the form of a lump of clay daubed with red paste. Travelling Hindus come to these shrines to meditate or venerate their gods.

Hinduism has truly developed into a rich and colorful religion because of its long history and various influences from the peoples of many cultures. Today, Hinduism is still thriving in many countries around the world because of the deep meaning people get from believing and practicing it. While many of its sacred religious beliefs and practices should be continued, a few, like the caste system should be checked and abolished completely as it still goes on in many small towns and rural areas. The government may also evaluate the safety of sacred religious practices like bathing in holy rivers. All in all, Hinduism is a meaningful religion, which has to be improved to better benefit its growing number of followers.