Religion and Theology

From Abraham, traditionally dated 1812 BCE until the Babylonian exile (586-537 BCE), the story of Judaism divides into distinct periods beginning with the Patriarchal period from Abraham to Moses. This was followed by the Exodus, (1312 BCE), then by the settlement or re-settlement of Canaan. Next came the confederate period under charismatic judges, which was followed by the United Kingdom (1047-931 BCE). The next period, the divided kingdom, ended when the two kingdoms were conquered in 720 and 586 BCE respectively. The Babylonian Exile followed the second fall. Each phase contributed building blocks to the construction of Jewish identity, adding to how Jews understood their duty and responsibilities, their relationship with G-d and of their faith. It was during the exile that much of the written tradition developed and foundations were laid, in the synagogues through reflection on the experience of faith that eventually allowed Judaism to survive loss of Temple and land in 70CE. The particularity of covenant, the concept that began with Abraham, found universal expression in the hope of global peace, justice and a better world for all.

Abraham Judaisms Seminal Personality
Abraham is Judaisms first Patriarch, a seminal figure in the religions history.. Historians question how much of the Biblical account is reliable or even if he really existed. Abrahams story starts in Genesis chapter 12. Genesis 1-12 deals with a type of universal history, with creation, human origins, the spread of tribes and languages. In genesis 12 there is a shift in focus, from the general to the particular, to Abraham, his family and heirs. Abraham may be a composite figure but most scholars agree that he emerged from the world of Semitic tribes on the edge on the upper arm of the Fertile Crescent (Feiler 20). Presumably surrounded by paganism, Abraham heard G-ds voice telling him to travel with his family to an unknown destination. G-d would give him and them land (Genesis 12 1). His heirs would be numerous and all people would be blessed through them (12 3). This developed into the idea of a promised land, of being a chosen people in a covenant with God, marked by circumcision (Genesis 17). In return for G-ds blessing and the land, Abraham and his heirs were to obey G-d. It was not until old age that Abraham (originally Abram), settled in Canaan, the Promised Land and his wife, Sarah had a son, Isaac, although Abraham had earlier fathered Ishmael through a servant (Genesis 16). Isaac married Rebekah (Genesis 26 20) and their sons were Jacob and Esau. Jacob married Rachel and Leah and they had twelve sons, for whom twelve tribes of Hebrews were later named. The brothers sold Joseph into slavery, because they were jealous of him. In Egypt, after a time in prison (although he was innocent) Joseph, who had a gift for interpreting dreams, ended up solving Pharaohs dreams and predicting that seven years of plenty would be followed by seven years of drought. Pharaoh put Joseph in charge of preparing for the famine and a reunion with his family followed when they traveled to Egypt to buy food, hearing that Egypt had stored up provisions. They had had no knowledge about the famine. Isaac (renamed Israel) and his family (soon known as Hebrews) relocated to Egypt. After Joseph and the Pharaohs death, the Hebrew people were enslaved. Had G-d forgotten them Had G-d not promised them their land in perpetuity

Egypt and Exodus Moses
Historians argue whether monotheism began with Abraham or with Moses or whether both men were actually henotheists, that is, they recognized one supreme God but did not deny other Gods existence (Christian 15). When Moses is told (Exodus 20 5) to refrain from worshipping other Gods this implies that other Gods were thought to exist. Moses life is fleshed out in later Jewish writing, such as the Talmud. The Bibles details are brief. However, he played a critical role as Law Giver and Liberator and as the hero of what becomes the central event in Jewish history, the Exodus. G-d heard the Hebrews prayers by commissioning Moses to be their liberator, Moses. Pharaoh had heard a rumor that a Hebrew slave would challenge him, so ordered all male Hebrew babies killed (Exodus 1 22). Moses was saved, growing up in the royal household. Later, having learned of his real identity, he killed an Egyptian overseer who was beating a slave. Exiled at 40, Moses became a shepherd. Then, aged 80, G-d spoke to him through a bush that burned but was not consumed, identifying himself as G-d of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob (Exodus 3 6). Moses, assisted by his brother, Aaron, challenged Pharaoh to free the slaves. A series of plagues, ending with the death of first-born Egyptian boys, convinced him to do so. At night, without time to let their bread rise, the Hebrews fled. This would be commemorated as Pesach Passover  the angle of death had passed over the Hebrews houses. G-d saved G-ds people.

Pharaoh changes his mind and sent his army after the slaves. However, G-d opened up a sea for them to cross but let the waters flood back and drown the pursuing army. It took forty years to reach Canaan. This was a time of testing. During this period, G-d gave Moses the Torah. Orthodox Jews believe that Moses received the whole of the Torah (Five Books) and the oral Torah (later written down as Mishnah). The Torah contained detailed instructions for building an Ark and a Tabernacle to contain the Torah, rules of conduct and a code of ethics. The Hebrew people were to become holy, like G-d (Leviticus 20 26). By refraining from eating certain foods, by observing the Sabbath as a holy day, they would become a special people. They were to keep apart from others on returning to Canaan (Exodus 34 16), yet strangers were to be treated hospitably, since they knew what it was like to be oppressed (Deuteronomy 10 19). Remembering that they had been slaves until G-d liberated them becomes a strong motif. Some have speculated that Moses was really an Egyptian who adapted the monotheism of Akhenaton and the traditions of the Patriarchs was invented to create a myth of origins. Circumcision, too, may have been borrowed from Egypt  (Freud 29-31).

Abrahams story contributed the notion of having a covenant with G-d, who was to be obeyed. Moses story fleshes out the covenant with content  613 commandments. Jews believe that the Torah contains 613 laws (not ten)  613 is symbolic number. There are 365 instances of thou shalt not, one for each day of the year and 248 of thou shall, one for every bone in the body according to the ancient count (Wylen 83-4). Keeping the commandments  which non-Jews are not required to do  separates the Jewish people from everything impure and unholy. Monotheism (even if Moses was a henotheist) is closely associated with him, proclaimed by the Schema at Deuteronomy 6. This becomes a badge of Jewish identity  worn in the tefillin, contained in the mezuzah above doorposts. The command not to worship other Gods becomes a constant refrain  one that does not feature between Abraham and Moses, when the matter of many versus one God was simply not an issue (Christian 15).

The Confederacy and the time of the Judges
Under Joshua, Moses successor as leader, Canaan was conquered. The 12 tribes settled in land apportioned for them (except for Priests and Levis, assistants) and a loose confederacy developed. There was no system for a permanent federal leader. When crises occurred, G-d raised a judge. The High Priest (descended from Aaron) performed the sacrifices as detailed in Torah at a series of High Holy Places, setting up the Tabernacle.  The judges held court on the same circuit. The theme at this time is bout being a people apart, not imitating others. Toward 1000 BCE, however, the people demanded that G-d appoint a King, so that they would have a permanent leadership system like others nations (I Samuel 8 5). Initially G-d objected, saying that he was their king and that a king would exploit and oppress them. Borgman comments that the desire to be like other nations flies in the face of prior narrative emphasis on Israels bering set apart from other nations (23). Then G-d agreed. Saul was anointed King. Sauls reign proved a failure, confirming what God had said. Perhaps G-d allowed Saul to rule because he knew that Saul would prove deficient as an object lesson to Israel against the advisability of monarchical leanings (Borgman 21).

The United and Divided Kingdoms
David and Solomon, his son, were second and third king of the United Kingdom. They emerge as models of Kingship, close to Gods ideal. Solomon built the Temple in Jerusalem, which had become Davids capital. Ritual shifted exclusively to the Temple. After Solomons death (931 BCE), a dispute over succession split the kingdom into two Judea (with Jerusalem) was in the South, Israel the North. A series of kings follow. Their reigns are judged by how well they matched up to David and Solomon. The area ruled by Saul was small. David expanded this. Solomon, renowned for his wisdom, ruled over the largest territory of any of the kings. This period also saw the prophets, who were men called by G-d to speak truth to power, hold kings to account. They must rule justly. They must not oppress orphans, widows and strangers. Mere worship is worthless unless accompanied by sincere inner piety and external acts of charity (Amos 5). If the people worshipped other Gods, G-d would punish them. In 720 or 722, the Northern kingdom fell to Assyria. The ten tribes living there were dispersed into exile throughout the Assyrian empire. The Prophet Jeremiah warned the South that they trusted falsely in the Temple. If they continued to oppress the stranger, the alien, the fatherless, the widow and to steal, murder and commit adultery (Jeremiah 7 6-9) they would lose their land. The North had fallen because the king and people had failed to keep the covenant. The South was not immune from defeat either, if people continued to worship false Gods and neglected justice. Possession of the land was conditional on obeying G-d.

Exile
Neither king nor people listened. 586 BCE, Jerusalem fell to the Babylonians. This was soon understood as divine punishment. The remaining two tribes were taken into exile, although some went elsewhere  to Egypt, for example. Jeremiah, who was not exiled, wrote a letter of advice to the Babylonian exiles. Unlike the Egyptian captivity, although exiled in Babylon, many Jews prospered there. In fact, Jewish life thrived in Babylon. Babylon (later known as Iraq) continued to be an important center of Jewish learning for many centuries. There, the Babylonian Talmud was written in 500 CE. Scholars believe that much of the tradition was written down at this time, when the Torah reached its final form. Scholars think that many editors contributed to composing the Bible (Torah, the writings and the prophets),that different strands or schools can be identified. This is known as the documentary hypothesis. Orthodox Jews believed that the Torah pre-existed before Moses received it, that G-d used Torah as his instrument in creating the world. During the exile, three daily prayers substituted for the sacrifices in the Temple. Tradition later said that Abraham established the morning prayers, Isaac the afternoon and Jacob the evening (Goldhill 92). Many believe that the synagogue as a venue for study and possibly for congregational worship developed in Babylon, although Jews in Egypt built a Temple there. In Babylon, developments in ritual and worship did not need a cultic center but were of a type that could be practiced anywhere (Albertz 109). Albertz thinks that synagogues cannot be proved to have developed in the exile but says that forms of worship evolved in which the focus was no longer on sacrificial offering but on the word (readings from scripture, confession of faith, prayer) and that these forms represent one of the roots of later synagogue worship (109).

Exile was a time of reflection. G-d would restore the Jews to their land, if they truly repented. The Prophet Ezekiel spoke of dry bones being revived (Ezekiel 37). Jeremiah said that the exiles should plant vineyards, marry off their children, work and pray for the peace and prosperity of the city whatever city they were living in (29 4-7). Jews could be faithful to their covenant with God outside Israel, without a functioning Temple. By keeping the commandments, contributing to human knowledge and prosperity and world peace, they could inherit the blessing of Genesis 12. Other people would also be blessed. One day, Jerusalem would be restored, becoming a beacon of peace for all people. All people would gather on Mount Zion (Jerusalem), worshipping the One and Only God (Isaiah 60). Some spoke of a Messiah, a son of David, who would free the Jews and inaugurate an era of global peace. A great battle between good and evil might be fought.

Conclusion
When Cyrus of Persia conquered Babylon, he allowed Jews who wished to return to Jerusalem to rebuild the Temple. In the post-exile period, Jews gained quasi independence but they later lost this under the Romans. By then, synagogues were wide spread. Jews lived throughout the Mediterranean world. Many did not feel the need to live in Palestine, as their promised land was then called. One influential school, the Pharisees, had little time for the Temple. They encouraged inner purity and were based in the synagogues. After 70CE, due to a revolt  one of many  against Rome, Jews were expelled from Palestine.  The Pharisees, with their emphasis on Torah and on the experience of the exile, enabled Rabbinical Judaism to evolve from what is often called Biblical religion. Without a functioning priesthood, prayer and Torah study (and later study of Talmud) became crucial to Jewish faithfulness. The people would fill the world with wisdom.