Religion and Theology

This paper discusses my Christian worldview based on my belief in God, my faith in absolute truth and my confidence in the definition of right and wrong through the Bible.

Christian Worldview
America is now suffering from a Great Recession which was initiated by atheistic US bankers.  As the Telegraph reports, Dr John Sentamu, the Archbishop of York, attacked exploitative money lenders who pursued ruthless gain and urged banks not to enrich themselves at their poor neighbours expense.  Their worldview is dominated by money.  They believe in the survival of the fittest, and they think that they can get away with anything.  Their philosophy is to conquer or be conquered, to exploit anyone and everyone and morals are only for the weak.  But I look at the world through the lens of a Christian, and I believe that my faith in God, my belief in absolute truth and my definition of morality based on Gods wordthe Holy Biblewill make my life successful and happy.

For greedy American bankers, God does not exist, but for me, He lives in my heart.  They say that God is a figment of my imagination, and there is no proof that God exists.  As Psalms 531 points out, The fool says in his heart, There is no God. They are corrupt, and their ways are vile (New International Version).  But for me, the suffering that they have now brought to themselves is proof that there is someone out there more powerful than anyone.  As Psalm 191 asserts, the heavens declare the glory of God the skies proclaim the work of his hands.  The consequences that they will face under President Obama will be evidence that justice under God will prevail.  As Isaiah 515 says, My mercy and justice are coming soon. My salvation is on the way. My strong arm will bring justice to the nations. All distant lands will look to me and wait in hope for my powerful arm (New Living Translation).  And the happiness and contentment that I will enjoy throughout my life by trusting God is a confirmation of His reality and love for those who trust Him.  Indeed, All you who fear the LORD, trust the LORD He is your helper and your shield.

While greedy bankers may also believe in the relativity of truth, I consider it to be absolute.  These people think that truth depends on perspective, just as beauty lies in the eye of the beholder.  They claim that what is evil for me is good for them.  They think that the whole idea of good and evil is subjective, and that it is for the greater good that they do all these evils.  But I believe that good and evil are absolute.  They have done evil, and that is the absolute truth, whether they like it or not.  People all over the world, the majority of mankind, agree with me.  The world is one in condemning them as evil.
 While these bankers define right and wrong based on their own rational thinking, I believe that only God, through his word, the Bible, can define morality.  People who claim to think logically ask questions such as If you and your family were thrown overboard a sinking ship, and you could save only one person, either your mother or your husband who both cant swim, who would you choose  But in a real-life situation involving ones family, real people dont depend on logic like robots.  Indeed, I would pray to God and attempt to save them both.  I have faith that God will save us all, and faith is more powerful than logic.

In the end, my Christian worldview, defined by my trust in Gods existence, my refusal to believe in the relativity of truth, and my faith in Gods Word as the ultimate resource for defining right and wrong, is my path to salvation.  How I wish that everyone else can also see through my lenses.

Islam is one of the major world religions in the world. It is also one of the staunch faiths whose applications of the teachings of the Quran are taken with utmost strictness. The Quran acts as the guiding principle in the everyday life of a Muslim faithful. This discussion delves deep into the Muslim faith paying particular attention on what is considered sin and how forgiveness is done in this religion (Murad. 57)
.
In order to establish whether an act or omission in the Islamic faith the teachings of Prophet Muhammad are looked. Any act or omission which goes against these teachings is considered a sin. Sins are classified into three major categories which are sins against God the Almighty (Allah), sins against another human being and sins against the human race. However commission of sins does not make one cease to be a Muslim (Murad. 65-68).

Sins are further classified into other four categories. The first category is that of sins which can be forgiven without the guilty person having to repent their sins. The next category is of sins which can be forgiven by making up with good deeds. This means that if a person has sinned then they do something good as a way of making up for their initially bad deeds. These sins are known as tharaba sagina. The other category is of sins which can be forgiven after repentance but God the Almighty (Allah) can forgive even without repentance if He wills. These sins are referred to as tharaba kabira. The fourth category is of sins which are against a large group of people and forgiveness must be sought (Murad. 106-110).

For forgiveness to effectively take place repentance is necessary. Repentance is acceptance. This helps to give the person who have been wronged the rights and authority to forgive. The requirement however is that the person who has been wronged must accept to forgive the wrongdoer upon the latter repenting of his sins.

Islam is one of the religions where sin is taken with great weight. Everyday a Muslim faithful strives to please Allah and always tries to keep away with that which is forbidden or that which can make Allah angry. The wrath of Allah is feared in the Muslim faith. It is thus imperative that A Muslim faithful asks for guidance every single day so as not to fall into temptations and go against that which is the will of Allah. Muslims conduct prayers at least five times in a day and every time during these prayers guidance is one of the key issues that they pray for. Of all the sins that there are in the Islam faith the worst of them all is to compare Allah with any other being. This is known as blasphemy and it is classified as the worst sins of all (Murad. 153-159). This is what is known as shirk

The sins that a person commits is either through the influence by the devil (Shaytaan) or act of self control which leads a person to act way beyond the expectations of the Islam religion. Allah does not find pleasure with the bad deeds committed by human beings and only finds delight in the good deeds that mankind is involved in. It is only Allah who can help a person to refrain from sins and do only that which is right. May God the Almighty forgive us sins of the past, present and help us refrain from committing sins in future (Murad. 176-180).

Seven influential moral thinkers hammered just war tradition which has been distilled into seven principles where five of the principles judge whether a decision to go to war is actually justifiable while the other two are a guide to just conduct in waging a war. The principles of a just war include legitimate authority, just cause, just intent, last resort, reasonable chance of success, principle of discrimination and the principle of proportionality. The Spanish and Portuguese were not justified to go to war with the Guarani but the Guarani were justified to war with the Portuguese and the Spanish.

Subjecting the Portuguese and the Spanish to the seven principles of a just war they were not justified to go to war. The first principle which requires that before a war is started, it must be declared by a legally recognized authority which in most cases is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces while in United states it the Congress was not met by the Spanish and Portuguese soldiers. The soldier according to Alves were sent to relocate the Guarani but when they resisted they resorted to military action where many natives were killed and other were taken as slaves without the order of the legal authorities of the two nations (4). Before going to war with the Guarani the just war principles demand that Spanish and Portuguese leaders and soldiers were to seek an order from the commander-in-chief of the armed forces of their respective countries before waging a war with the natives which they did not do.

The second principle of a just war that requires that a war should not be started on the basis of expanding a territory or national pride but only for a just cause like resistance to aggression by means of threat of attack or attack was not met either by the Portuguese and the Spanish in fighting the Guarani people. They instead invaded the people with an aim to relocate them to take them as slaves but when the Guarani resisted they started war with them thereby breaching the just cause (Alves 4). Another principle require that before starting a war the aims of the war should be just and limited which should be restoring justice and peace and not vengeance. The Spanish and the Portuguese breached this principle as well since their intention was not to restore peace or justice among the Guarani people. They waged the war out of their own selfish gain because the natives were living peacefully before. Their interest was the land of the Guarani and to enslave them as well.

It was not the last resort for the Portuguese and the Spanish to start war with the Guarani people. The principles requires that all other means should be used to resolve dispute between contending parties and that the means must have been tried and found to fail before going to war. In the situation of the Portuguese, Spanish and the Guarani people there was no dispute in the first place. It is the Spanish and Portuguese that were determined to take the land that belonged to the natives and to take them as slaves and even after the natives resisted their effort they never used any other means to resolve the dispute but war.

There should be reasonable chance of success before starting a war which the Portuguese and the Spanish did not take to consideration. The principle requires that the situation should be accessed to ascertain if there is a possibility of success before initiating or continuing a war. They never considered this fact and that is the reason why the war continued for several decades and they were eventually defeated (Elves 6).  Another principle of a just war tradition that the Portuguese and Spanish violated is the principle of civilian immunity or honor of noncombatant where the noncombatants are not targeted to avoid civilian deaths. It also requires that prisoners captured should be treated humanely and that military forces desist from rapes, massacres, looting and other atrocities. This was not the case in the wars of the Guarani where all sorts of atrocities were committed against the people since children, women and men alike were taken captives and were not treated humanely. The principle of proportionality which requires that the harm to be caused by a war must not exceed the good the war can accomplish. Before the Europeans invaded the natives they were living peacefully in their land but after they attacked them they were left with sorrows since some died, others were enslaved, property destroyed and families disunited forever. It therefore goes without saying that the Spanish and the Portuguese caused several harm and zero good to the Guarani which is against this principle of just war.

The Portuguese and the Spanish were not justified to initiate and continue the war with the Guarani after being subjected to the seven principles of a just war tradition. In all the instances they went contrary to the principles. They were not interested in the plight of the people or the outcome of the war but their own selfish gains.

The Red tent is a fictious and melodramatic story about Dinah, the biblical character daughter of Jacob and Leah .Dinah comes out as a fascinating and courageous lady in this fiction. At puberty she enters the Red tent, which is a place where women enter when giving birth, experiencing menstruation or sick, its in this tent, where Dinah is initiated and taught the traditional, religious and sexual practices of her tribe by her mother Leah and stepmothers, Rachel, Zilpah, and Bilhah. She falls in love with Shalem, a wealthy and good looking Egyptian, who reciprocates her love and makes his intention of marrying her known to her father and brothers this proves as an impetus to conflict as her brothers savagely murder the Egyptian, without their fathers knowledge. Its upon this tragedy that she travels while pregnant to Egypt where she becomes a consummate midwife. In essence the story revolves around the seemingly untold life of Dinah from childbirth to adulthood as she traverses two regions that are Cannan and Egypt.

Diamant novel is inspired by the story of Dinah in the Bible, as its noted, Now Dinah the daughter of Leah, whom she had borne to Jacob went out to visit the women of the land and when schechem the son of Hamor the Hivite, the prince of the land, saw her, he seized her and lay with her (Revised standard version Bible, Gen. 34.1-2). Though based on a Bible story, Diamant has recreated this story using fictious characters. According to her, the protagonist, Dinah meets and falls in love with a wealthy Egyptian man, Shalem, with whom they engage in sexual intercourse resulting in pregnancy. However despite his willingness to buy and marry her, her kindred refuse to accept. They plot and tragically murder the Egyptian. The point of contrast is born in the sense that this story goes contrary to what is described in the book of Genesis.    Some of the critics of this book aptly deny some of the writers information for instance, the writer depicts Dinah as a willing lover of the prince in that she was never raped as told in the Bible but rather willingly escaped to get married.

Also according to some Jewish rabbis, Diamant tries to depict Dinahs brothers as selfish, bloodthirsty and uncaring individuals this has been seen as controversial given the fact that, they were avenging an act of crime committed against their sisters. Jacob here is depicted as a barbaric and uncaring father, who will go to any extend to destroy the love of the two lovers. However, this according to scholars and proponents of the bible is completely untrue in the sense that, Jacob is believed to have, reprimanded and regretted the deeds of his sons, even on his death bed.

Though unpopular to men, the novel can be termed as a success in the sense that the plight of women is brought into light. For long the bible has been criticized by some as not telling much about women in the historical Christian life, here the issue of cannons is brought into light, thus by writing this novel Diamant  tells the untold life of women in traditional Christian society. 

Also through the novel the importance of religion is brought out and more so the role of women in teaching and passing knowledge to the youth, as ardently described. They traded secrets like bracelets, and these were handed down to me the only surviving girl.  They held my face between their hands and made me swear to remember.

 Diamant has also made us understand women trials, and misgivings in the journey of life as regards love, childbearing, and marriage. Thus she gives women a voice not before herd in traditional Christian community. The issue of inequality is also brought out in that we are told of how women were isolated at times in the Red tent this enables us to better understand our Christian traditional past and the achievements achieved so far.

Open the television and what you may ask takes one of the biggest TV viewing audience shares Talkshows it is. From Oprah to Ellen, the talk show biz has gone a long way and delves on lives of celebrities and all other things that stirs the enthusiasm and interest of people young and old. With this power to influence the public, why not dwell on a subject that encompasses the very foundation from which all our life rules are based

The Ten Commandments  still commands a sense of respect when mentioned. Even a small kid to the oldest of old still feel a sense of awe when hearing this. It somehow awakes a nostalgic feeling especially to the Christians because it holds the guiding rules of life passed through generations by their forefathers. This set of guiding principles have been intricately interwoven in our culture and society and have been the basis for our very own fabricated laws and statutes. Ancient as it is, it may very well be the most easy to grasp handbook in the life of man. Easily put and in summary, the New Testament in Matthew 22 says, Teacher, which is the greatest commandment in the Law Jesus replied  Love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your mind. This is the first and greatest commandment. And the second is like it Love your neighbor as yourself. All the Law and the Prophets hang on these two commandments (Matthew 2236-40). Clear as a cloudless sky, it communicates to us the simple yet meaningful relevance of recognizing a higher power that is omnipotent, omniscient and omnipresent as well as valuing the very gift that we should be most thankful for- life. As we value life, we make the best out of it and go out of our way to extend concern for others.

However, modernization and globalization tend to bend these marks set in in stone. Popular culture may have just found a way around this and have formed ways to justify countering the commandments. In todays world the Decalogue, another term referring to the Ten Commandments, as like in a talk show may just be facing its own issues ---Are these commandments still followed In a society that craves for makeovers as they do for ice cream on a hot summer day, has the Commandments had a makeover Having one true God is not anymore the norm, as is dictated by our multi-faith society. Idols and images are of different sizes and materials that adorn places of worship. As for not using the name of God in vain, TV shows such as Southpark for one periodically use God as a subject of humor. Sad as it is, a number of viewers would find it amusing. Sabbath day has now translated to rest and relaxation day for most. The fifth commandment strictly points out the importance of loving your parents but this may not hold true today  love thy mother and father  now translates to  familiarity breeds contempt . No killing What more is there to say Since 1964, the U.S. crime rate has increased by as much as 350, and over 11 million crimes were reported in the year 2007 alone (DeBrodie 1). Adulterous acts is not as grave as it was before. In fact it is one of the juiciest plot for TV shows and movies.  Thou Shalt Not Steal  , not obviously it is. From the streets to the multinational scene, stealing has always been an issue. As for not bearing false witness against your neighbor At least perjury is still a serious crime. Last among the ten is specific on not coveting thy neighbors property, wife or his properties. Well, not while your neighbor is at home at least. Humor aside, it is frustrating that instances such as these have gotten way out of hand. Laws have been designed and punishments strictly implemented. Despite these, the constant rule breaking increase over time and dismayed as we are, we have reached another era that challenge yet again our human nature.

Agnostics, atheists and non-Christians may not be fans of the Commandments yet they recognize it. It is a widely recognized set of morals. Morals. The spirituality of the Ten Commandments may be an issue for a variety of groups but the morality that is plainly presented and enumerated by the Commandments is a canopy that is multi faith in nature. In emphasis to the age of the ten Commandments, it has been passed on at arms length through generations and might as well be the law of all laws because time has not had the luck or the power to have it eliminated in history. Unamended by the passing of eras, it is a testimony that there is a higher power that governs mankind. That higher being who has the magnificent mind to create such a firm and encompassing set of commands. Not even the best leader that has been elected may have the greatness that can surpass ever creating a work unerasable by time and human frailty. Being drafted from love it is precise in communicating that the solution to the complexities of life as we know it is simple. Extending self love to our peers. In remembrance of the power that the Commandments was based on, it may be hard but it is possible to amplify the value of neighborly love in ways that we are very capable of imploring.

In conclusion, the Ten Commandments may not be eye candy or gossip for all but it definitely will outlast the error of human perception and ignorance. Its validity and age make it all the more credible to serve as the guiding principle in society, culture and human development. Simplicity is a key factor that makes it easy to embrace and is formatted in a way that is applicable to all. The Ten Commandments, hands down are the 10 vs the millions rules that make the more impact and are central to improving mans way of life. It is not the Ten Commandments that needs a makeover, we do.

The Gallican rite emerged from Gaul in the fifth century C. E., and was used in Western Christianity through the seventh and eighth centuries, being gradually replaced by first the Ambrosian and finally the Roman rites.  The main textual sources for the form and content of the Gallican rite are the letters of St. Germanus of Paris, though a variety of sources, from the British Isles to Spain, are used for the rites reconstruction.  While the Gallican rite is solemn, dramatic, and overlaid with a profusion of items, it is also fluid and flexible, since no official Ordinary for the rite exists.  The Eucharistic Rite II, by contrast, is laid out in the Episcopalian Book of Common Prayer, and though some parts of it vary, these variations are also contained within a highly structured Ordinary form.  This rite, which unlike the Latin Gallican rite is conducted in the peoples vernacular and is currently in use among Christians, is simple and streamlined, containing fewer prayers and distinct elements than its Gallican counterpart.  The rites largely contain the same general elements, with a few notable exceptions, though often in a different order.  The principal distinction between the rites is that Rite II is more populist than the Gallican rite, requiring a higher level of participation in worship by the people.  This can be traced to the protestant influence upon Anglicanism, as well as the distinct conceptions of God that are implied in the Eucharistic offices.

In the Gallican rite, the prayers of the people or intercessions are led by a deacon or precentor who specifies the needs for which they are to pray.  In Rite II, though the specification of needs still occurs, intercessions are led by lay members of the congregation.  This emphasis on the ministry of the laity in public worship underscores the fact that the scriptures, and indeed the worship of the church, are for the whole people of God and not just for the clergy.  In both rites, the people sometimes respond during prayer with the Greek term Kyrie eleison, or Lord have mercy, which is one of the only vestiges of non-vernacular prayer present in the Rite II Ordinary.  Kyrie eleison also occurs during the Rite II entrance, or preparation for worship, when the Canticles are sung.  The Canticles used in Rite II vary between Gloria in excelsis, Kyrie or Christe eleison, and Trisagion.  These Canticles are sung by the people, whereas in the Gallican rite, Canticles are performed either by church officers or three young boys.  The Gallican rite, like Rite II, uses Kyrie eleison and the Trisagion, but instead of Gloria in excelsis, it includes Benedictus, also called the Canticle of Zacharias.

In Rite II, after the Canticles, a Collect is recited before the biblical lessons commence.  By contrast, the Collect occurs toward the end of the Gallican rite, as part of post-Communion prayer, but before the dismissal.  Despite the disparate locations of the Collects, they are preceded in both rites by prayer (though in Rite II, there is a hymn in between).  Unlike Rite II, the Gallican rite has no prayers separating the singing of the Antiphon and the Canticles, and so the Gallican entrance provides a time of solemn yet aesthetically pleasurable experience that acts as a preparation for the absorption of the biblical lessons.  The activities of the congregation during this time are minimal, whereas in Rite II the congregation participates in singing and praying from the very beginning of the service.  This suggests that the performance of the Gallican rite was more meditative than that of Rite II, and that inner silence on the part of worshipers was considered a more appropriate preparation for theological learning than was speaking.  It further suggests that the role of the people in the Gallican rite was less important than in Rite II. 

The act of reading and hearing lessons is similar in both rites the format is nearly the same, and in both cases primacy is placed on the Gospel reading.  There is, however, a key difference.  The Gallican rite comprehends three lessons a lesson from one of the prophetic texts in the Hebrew Bible, a reading from one of the New Testament Epistles, and finally the Gospel, the reading of which is preceded by a procession and a Sanctus sung by church leaders or clerks.  Eucharistic Rite II, as laid out in the Book of Common Prayer, does not specify a reading from the Hebrew Bible.  In fact, it explicitly leaves this out, noting that, one or two lessons, as appointed, are read but providing only two official lesson markers, one for the Gospel and one which specifically refers to an Epistle.  A reading from the Hebrew Bible is officially optional, but the dual, rather than triple, form of the Ordinary suggests that it is discouraged or at least de-emphasized.

The de-emphasis of the Hebrew Bible here points to a theological distance between Anglicanism and the Western orthodoxy of medieval times, when the Gallican mass was employed.  Without the influence of the Hebrew Bible, the conception of God in Eucharistic Rite II becomes less violent, anthropomorphic and judgmental.  The Gallican emphasis on prophetic texts points to a sense of God as highly critical of humans and their cultures, and willing to punish entire cultures for their transgressions.  The marginalization of this aspect of God in the Rite II reflects the cultural, as opposed to the prophetic, nature of the Anglican tradition, and indicates a highly intellectualized understanding of God.  The Gallican rite, by including Hebrew Bible readings, reflects a more bodily understanding of God, which is invested with fear and self-critique. 

On the other hand, the Anglican rite contains a formal confession of sin, between the prayers of the people and the peace, which the Gallican rite does not appear to have.  Instead, according to Thompson, the Gallican rite contains a prayer-form called apologia sacerdotisa long and intensely personal avowal of sin and unworthiness on the part of the celebrant.  The sins of the people are taken on by the celebrant, suggesting, paradoxically, both a deeper investment of authority in the celebrant and a need for the celebrant to approach his office with abject humility.  The priest does not pray with outstretched arms, but with hands folded in the Teutonic gesture of homage and submissiveness.  The emphasis on the congregations personal confession in Rite II reveals its populist and protestant character, while the Gallic apologia sacerdotis reveals both a sense of authoritarianism and, as with the prophetic Hebrew Bible readings, a theological tendency toward self-critique. 

This difference in confessional prayers is also reflected in the rites differing relationships between the sermon, or homily, and the people.  Neither rite specifies a transition between the Gospel reading and the sermon, though, in the Gallican rite, a procession and a song precede the Gospel reading.  Though the Book of Common Prayer refers to no such procession, some Episcopalian services do contain one.  Similarly, though not specified in the Ordinary, the children of Episcopalian congregations are often removed before the preaching of the sermon.  The catechumens in the Gallican rite, by contrast, are dismissed after the homily and the subsequent litany, and their dismissal is important enough to be considered a formal part of the service.  The Gallican dismissal is followed by a symbolic closing of the church doors, which connotes the protection of the Eucharistic elements and the mysteries of faith against persons who are unfit to observe them, whether they be catechumens or outsiders to the Christian faith.  There is no mention in Rite II of closing the doors or formally dismissing catechumens, suggesting once again that the faith expressed in Rite II is more populist and less authoritarian than Gallican faith.  Once the space for the mysteries is secured, the Eucharistic elements are brought in and the offertory begins.  There is no time set aside here, as in Rite II, for the congregational recitation of a Creed or declaration of faith.  In Rite II, the sermon is immediately followed by the Nicene Creed, suggesting that the celebrants wordsand thus the office of the celebrantrequire participation and affirmation from all believers.  The absence of any congregational response to the Gallican homily suggests a more authoritarian feeling, in which the priests speech is enough to carry the entire group toward communion with God. 

The process of Communion in the Gallican rite is more elaborate and formal than that of Rite II.  It contains a short saying, or Anaphora, a Sanctus and a post-Sanctus prayer leading into the recitation of the words of Institution, followed by a post-mysterium prayer involving oblation of the Eucharistic elements, several prayers and songs and a Benediction.  All of this occurs before the congregation receives the Eucharist.  Rite II contains many of the same elementsprayers both by the people and the celebrant, the singing of Hosanna, and, after the words of Institution, the Lords Prayer.  But the Gallican rite is more complex, while the Rite II Communion is streamlined.  While the Gallican rite contains a multiplicity of prayers, it does not appear to specify the presence of the Lords Prayer in the Eucharistic service.  This is radically different from Rite II, where the recitation of the Lords Prayer is central to worship.  Conversely, the pre-Communion Benediction specified in the Gallican rite does not appear in Rite II.  Both rites involve hymns during the breaking of bread, and include a post-Communion prayer.  One difference in the reception of Communion, which can be attributed primarily to rites different temporal locations, is that, in the Gallican rite, women would have covered their hands with material in order to receive the elements, while men would have received them with bare hands.  Both rites conclude the Communion process with a dismissal, though in the Gallican rite this is spoken or sung by the priest while, in Rite II, it is shared between priest and congregation.

While it is obvious that Rite II has been formed by elements from the Gallican rite, and the two reflect one another on many levels, the few notable variations that do exist say volumes about the theological and cultural differences of the two versions of Christianity represented by the rites.  Rite IIs de-emphasis of the Hebrew Bibles prophetic texts indicates a more gentle and intellectualized understanding of God, while the God represented in the Gallican rite is more bodily and dangerous, inspiring fear and self-critique in the congregants.  The difference between confession prayers is also significant, since it reveals both the self-critical and the authoritarian aspects of Gallican faith.  Overall, it is clear that Eucharistic Rite II is informed by a kind of populism, in which worship is centered primarily on the people, rather than the celebrant.  The Gallican rite stimulates silence in the congregation, and allows the celebrant to speak for them, while Rite II calls upon the people to speak for themselves. 

The creation accounts in the book of Genesis, (Gen 11-24a and Gen 24a-35) are two of the most commented accounts in the books of the Pentateuch, and this is for several reasons. One of the reasons is that these accounts are enveloped in the mythological part of the book of Genesis. The mythical aspect of Genesis is said to convey and unconceal religious truths as to how the universe began, where sin is rooted and so on. The first eleven chapters are known to contain the mythical part of Genesis.

The main focus of this paper is to establish (a) parallelism between the two accounts of creation, and (b) a difference on the themes of the accounts.  The two accounts of creation are an indication of the science that the early biblical writers (traditions) had in their time. The people used to explain origin of things by the use of myth. Whybray (1994, p. 29) emphasizes that these accounts have to be regarded as prologue to the Pentateuch. These accounts, as part of the prologue, are not to be taken as actual events that have occurred in the past. Whybray(1994, p. 29)  clearly underlines that these (chapters) can obviously not be based on any record of what actually occurredthat we might actually be dealing with a very different world. These contentions show the science that the traditions were into in having these accounts. This another world is also evident in the longevity of the lives of characters in some of the following chapters after the creation accounts.

But in as much as the themes of these accounts are involved, they are totally different. There are several factors to consider. The first account of creation has been dominated by the P (Priestly) tradition. This account is a brilliant beginning to the Old Testament for it combines the best of Hebrew narrative style with the soaring refrains of a hymn. This is vividly shown in one of the works of Lawrence Broadt (1984, pp. 114-118). This account of P is like a sort of a story which is often told to children, which usually shows the majesty of a powerful Creator that would leave the listeners in awe and wonder. One could notice that in the structure on how the first account has been written consisted of two parts. The first three days are when God the Creator did the separation, that is, he separated each part into each place. Broadt (1984, pp. 114-118) notes that the separation implies a linguistic style which does not have several degrees of comparison, rather it deals with only the extremes. This is evident in the expressions lightfrom darkness, waters above and waters below, dry land and water. Any reader could easily notice the extreme opposites involved in the noted expressions. Light and darkness, above and below, dry land and water (wet land) are opposites.   The next three days, the Creator filled the physical world. Broadt (1984, pp. 114-118) shows hereby a clear picture of the world described  in the P account of creation. The world is therefore seen as flat, it has pillars underneath. Above the ground is a firmament, which looks like a dome, eventually known as heaven. This dome has valves through which waters come down to the ground.

In the P creation narrative, man (woman) is the pinnacle of Gods creation. This would place humankind over and above the other creatures. In Gen. 126-27, God said let us make man in our image and likeness. This is described by Murphy (1996, pp.13-14) as a climactic moment when there seemed to be a consultation with the heavenly court of the sons of God who praised and served him. This is an indicative of monolatry which is hereby differentiated from monotheism. A simple definition of monolatry is the recognition of the existence of many gods, but with the consistent worship of only one deity. (available at  httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiMonolatrism, accessed April 28, 2010). Man and woman enjoy the privilege of being Gods co-creators. Murphy (1996, p. 13) describes this to be of twofold. It consists of man as the steward of Gods creation, and they are blessed with fertility (cf. Gen.128). In the final analysis, as a summary of this part, Gen. 11-24a portrays an image of God in his nature. Broadt(1984, p. 118) says that this part of Genesis contains an entire portrait of the nature of Yahweh, the God of Israel, over all pagan claims.  In addition to this is the emphasis of the P tradtion on the line and God saw it was good. Carreto (1990, p.15) emphasizes that the creator, not enough for once, had to say it seven times.

Confounding to some readers, the Yahwists hymn of creation (cf. Gen. 24b-25) puts another streak of literary style and formation of a theme. The theme of the J tradition (Yahwist) centers on human beings. Murphy (1996, p. 14)describes that J regards the world to be existing but untilled, so the Lord God forms a male out of the dust of the earth, and breathed into him the breath of life, and thus he became a human being. The second account of creation shows man in his social nature. In the J account, God saw that it was not good for man to be alone so he created animals, but still man was not happy, so he created woman, out of a bone from his side. This may be interpreted to mean man and woman are equal in dignity. But more than that, the J account of creation is seen in Christian theology as a model of marriage. This is made parallel with the relationship of Yahweh and Israel, Jesus and His Church, and in marriage, man and his wife. The relationships are, in an ideal sense, characterized by love and fidelity.

Moreover, for Lawrence Boadt (1984, p.119), the theology of the second account of creation uses all these elements from pagan myths to give a very Israelite message Yahweh God begins creation with the human species and then fashions a world that they cultivate and tend, and makes animals for them to rule over, then establishes marriage and human community of two sexes to complement one another.

I Introduction
Art in many forms has been part of the church from a very early period. At first meetings were in the houses of members, but once the individual churches had their own dedicated buildings, what Lowrie calls the House of the church, they wanted to decorate them as described by Walter Lowrie in his 1947 book. (page105) Even tombs were decorated - Lowrie mentions the Roman catacombs ( page 19) which he describes as the first chapter in a long story. He mentions Biblical illustrations and also symbols  the anchor for instance was a symbol of hope, a ship, the symbol of the church  as an ark etc. Such works helped people to focus on the truths of their faith. They would have been subjects for discussion, the means perhaps of explaining difficult concepts to those for whom Christianity was a new experience.

Over time churches became full of such pictures, wall paintings sculpture, and symbolic carvings, stained glass windows and symbolic architectural features such as a cruciform floor plan etc. The arch of S. Maria Maggiore in Rome for instance depicts scenes from the infancy of Christ. This was carried out under the orders of Pope Sixtus III ,who used it to celebrate the Council of Ephesus in 361 C.E. Such scenes are used at the entrance of the church  for partly the same reason that a font is usually near the door. Both represent the beginnings of the journey of faith. The Ephesian Council had affirmed the human and the divine in Christ, united in His unique person. From this had developed the custom of addressing Mary as Mother of God. Virgins, usually accompanied by an infant Christ, proliferated in churches from this period onwards. Also, at a time when literacy levels were relatively low, and very few had access to Bibles, even if they could read, the pictures, wall paintings, statues and even the architecture in a church served as books for the people. They could look at pictures of the parables, or perhaps the stages of the cross, and learn something that would help them to develop and sustain their faith. Perhaps the priests would have used them as visual aids. Christian art was and is  produced in an attempt to illustrate, to  supplement and to  portray in a visivble tangible form the tenets of Christian faith, whether this be by the use of ancient Byzantine iconography, of a modern day representation of an angel such as that of St Michael on the outside of Coventry Cathedral in England. Most Christian groups throughout history use or have used art to some extent, although some groups have had strong objections to such religious imagery, fearing perhaps a slip into idoloatory.

There have however  been major periods  within Christianity history when  HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiIconoclasm o Iconoclasm iconoclasm took over, as when the Puritans ruled in England and  much  early art was destroyed, as they believed it could lead to idolatry. This Puritanism is still reflected to a greater or lesser degree in the simple and relatively undecorated churches belonging to the various Protestant nominations such as the Baptist churches of America, but even there symbolism  and the idea of giving God the best,  may be  celebrated in the work of many modern day artists.

II Inspiration in Christian Art
John Ruskin, the 19th century English art critic said that Art is the impurer for not being in the service of Christianity. The same article states that -
There is a higher mission for art than for mans material comfort or even keenest mental pleasure. It has, and should always have an ultimate moral, if not religious purpose.
A modern day Christian artist, painter Richard Hubbard, describes his own work as Oil paintings inspired by spiritual thinking in a realistic style from the imagination. Another such artist Danny Hahlbohm describes his works as Spreading the Word of God through Art.He goes on to say -

I am an artist. God has endowed me with this particular skill and I have spent
my entire life developing that skill to perfection all for the glory of the Lord, and rightly so.
One of the functions of art is to affect the emotions. In the case of Christian art the aim is to elevate those emotions. Christianity of course takes its name from Christ. He is its center, the ultimate cause. This means that depictions of him are often to be found in churches, and frequently in a central place.
In the1960s when the new Anglican Coventry Cathedral in Warwickshire was being considered, Graham Sutherland was selected by architect Basil Spence to design a  tapestry, rather than the  more usual painting or carving. This would depicted Christ and was  to be placed behind the high alter. He worked to criteria provided by the cathedral. The tapestry was to be capable of being understood by ordinary people. In age when abstract work was dominant, this was avoided. Four themes were to be used.

The glory of God the Father  in light
Christ depicted in the glory of the father. He could be sitting or standing  and the artist could choose whether he was in the act of blessing, of helping,  of ruling , of giving out the sacraments , or of simply drawing people to himself.

The Holy Spirit and the church. These could be represented symbolically
Finally heaven is represented by the presence of angels
Although St Michaels is an Anglican foundation, Sutherland was a convert to Catholicism. He wanted therefore to create something that fell in with church tradition His new found faith was a leading influence and inspiration, which was combined with his unique talents to produce an inspiring piece of work. His picture shows the suffering of Christ, and the Cathedral Schools Resources Team notes, in their life of Graham Sutherland, that in this he differed from other artists of the time. But this was quite soon after the end of wartime hostilities  the earlier church had been destroyed by the German blitz. He wanted to depict the suffering of the church in war in his depiction of Christ, but some considered his work to be too stark.

In other works, such as that at Northampton, in the Victorian St Matthews Church, he clearly shows the influence of photographs he had seen of concentration camps with their tortured bodies.

Graham Sutherland, Crucifixion 1946,
A preparatory painting for the work in Northampton, from The Tate Collection
Artists, architect and the many craftspeople who work as Christian artists are in most cases paid for their work. Often they are commissioned by others, yet at the same time their own faith is portrayed in their work. Shuna George for instance says she uses color and texture to explore her feelings and in some cases her own spiritual journey. Another artist on the same site describes himself as expressing The Father heart of God. Cornelius Momsa, an expressionist artist, although he uses almost abstract images, has as his aim - Modern Christian fine art work that aims to visualize the deeper truth of Christianity.

So although in most cases Christian art can be described as public art, it is , in the case of the artists involved,  an expression of a very individual faith.

III Central Themes
The themes and topics covered in Christian art, both in the past and into more modern times, are very varied. There may be windows depicting Old Testament events such as the Garden of Eden or Abraham and Isaac. Representations of the Ten Commandments are common, either just the words, or a picture of Moses holding them aloft. There will be New Testament stories such as the Prodigal Son or the Lost Sheep. There may be depictions or symbols of the Saint to whom the church is dedicated  St James the Great with scallop shells and pilgrims staff, St Jude with a ship, St Matthew with his book and so on. In Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox or high Anglican and Episcopalian churches statues or other portrayals of Mary are important, especially in a Lady Chapel. Similar images in various materials and genres of the Madonna and child, or simply the Virgin alone, date back
to the early centuries church  , as in this 4th century depiction from Rome.  There are famous Madonnas in many European churches and cathedrals to which people express devotion, believing that she has a special place in heaven.  The dominant theme will however be the life of Christ, whether on earth or in heaven, and in particular his passion, as in this 1954 work depicting the  Crucifixion by Salvador Dali.  HYPERLINK httpwww.leninimports.comdalicross1.html  INCLUDEPICTURE httpwww.leninimports.comdaligalltn1.gif  MERGEFORMATINET   (Corpus Hypercubus, Manipulation One). Many churches, however minimalistic their style, will have the  Stations of the Cross depicted in some way, and even the plainest church will have a cross in some form  usually outside to mark it as a holy place, but also, even if it only meets in a borrowed community center and everything has to be cleared away at the end of worship  - even there there will be a cross  a plain one in the case of Protestant churches, and usually a crucifix with Christ in his agony if it is a Roman Catholic meeting place. The reason why this one element is consistently present is of course its centrality to the Christian faith. As Paul said in his letter to the Galatians if salvation could have been obtained in any other way then Christ died for no good reason-

I live by faith in the Son of God who loved me and gave himself for me. I do
not set aside the grace of God, for if righteousness could be gained through the law, Christ died for nothing.

IV The Effect of Christianity upon Architecture
Richard Taylor, in his 2003 book, speaks of the significance of church layout. Often, in Western churches, they are laid out in cross form in order to remind worshippers of how Christ suffered as their Savior. Just as the ancient temple of Jerusalem was laid out in increasing layers of holiness and this too is often reflected in church architecture - from entrance to high alter. A cross on the spire or roof marks out the building as a holy place. There is an almost universal preference for a church to be orientated so that worshippers face east. This pre-dates Christianity.

Because Christ is so central to the faith of the church often he is depicted at a church entrance. Jesus as the Lamb of God, crucified  or as reigning in glory are all popular choices

Gargoyles were medieval drains , ensuring that the rain water fell as far away from the church walls as possible. They are often ugly, hideous even. They were originally intended to be so, because they were intended to scare away the devil.  People may no longer think in quite that way, but gargoyles may still be present on relatively modern churches, as on the Washington National Cathedral, as drain spouts are still necessary.  The fact that they are still often ugly shows how tradition is still an important influence as is the neo-Gothic architecture in general of this large Episcopal church, completed as late as 1990 .

Why go with such a traditional design Perhaps it is because this is what people expected, although most American churches are not in the Gothic style. Perhaps because in such a traditional building America can find the long architectural history of the Old World. Could it possibly be that in such a traditional design it is easier to incorporate symbolism and art that might look a little awkward in a more modern building. In Liverpool England there are two cathedrals within yards of each other. The Anglican cathedral, designed by Sir George Gilbert Scott is described as having a tower that stands over the city as a symbol of faith.  Dedicated to Christ and the Blessed Virgin it is a place of superlatives - the largest cathedral in the United Kingdom, the fifth largest in the world.  Edward Preston took 30 years to produce a series of sculptures as well as other pieces for the museum. This was the longest commission of his life. Yet the cathedral web site, although it can give a you all the dimensions you want, is more concerned about what goes on there  because a church is never just a building. This one, completed in 1978, is referred to as the great space .It is a place where the church,  the people of God, gather for worship and exist as a spiritual community. Its mission is To proclaim that Jesus Christ is alive and that His Gospel is true and relevant to todays world. The work of the hundreds of craftsmen and artists who have worked on this huge building during the last hundred years or so are part of that mission.

The Roman Catholic Liverpool Cathedral of Christ the King, only yards away, was built in a very different modernist style. It had however been a long time coming. The new diocese had been formulated in 1850, but it took much planning and time before the present building actually began. The architectural design was only accepted in 1960, but by 1967 the new cathedral, which was said to have been built in order to the new spirit of the liturgy, was being consecrated The building itself is topped by a crown  symbolizing the kingship of Jesus, but also of course reminiscent of his crown of thorns  so the whole building represents Christ, his  sacrificial death and his ultimate rule. Even in such a modernist building style there is room for other symbolism  the three steps to the central alter with its cross are symbolic of faith, hope and love as described by Richard Taylor, ( page  45) The cathedral has an art studio where such things as hangings, banners and vestments are made  not just for the cathedral, but for the parish churches and other commissions. So Christian art from this place spreads into and influences the wider community.

V Conclusion
Artists have always looked for inspiration. For Christian artists throughout history  their faith offered them the  spark of divine inspiration which they were able to translate into  canvases and buildings and other type of religious art.. These in turn inspired worshippers and were important in upholding and explaining that faith.  Whether it be a simple drawing from the ancient catacombs, a great work by  a Renaissance artist such as in the case of Da Vincis Madonna and child with St Anne and the young Saint John ,or a more modern piece in a modernist church, these are all much more than works of art.
Picasso has been quoted as saying, Religious art ... is an absurdity. How can you paint religious art one day and another kind the next What he probably meant was that if your faith was real then this would permeate everything you did  including the art you produced  whether a painting of the Last Supper for a convent dining room, or a picture of flowers to cheer up a hospital ward. The web site Art Galleries, Modern Christian Art features art that perhaps is not covering traditional subjects  no crucifixion, or nativity scenes. One artist claims his work is prophetic, others are more concerned with the beauty of creation. Some would describe their work as influenced by New Age ideas  - but taking a closer look  - there is a dove symbolizing the presence of the Holy Spirit, there is the Old Testament story of Jacob and the Ladder leading to heaven. St John the Evangelist is depicted on Patmos, with the light of heaven shining down upon him. These are modern people with modern ideas and they use modern day materials,  as well as traditional ones, but the faith they hold is not so different from that of the people who painted that early depiction of the Sacred Meal in the catacombs of Rome. They want to express their faith and to use their skills for the greater glory of God and for the benefit of the church, his people.  Sometimes they work to a commission, as when a new church requires the skills of an artist and give him guidelines to follow. All artists must live and therefore require an income after all, but ultimately it is his personal faith and skill, what Danny  Hahlbohm describes as not just   a days work or hours but we literally put ourselves, our souls into the work or creation we perform.. These are all brought together in the art produced. The result is that the artist benefits, God is gloried and the church, both the building and the people who are its members  the living church, has a means of inspiration, of getting closer to God.

After the events of 911, the whole of the world especially that of America began to change how they viewed Muslims as a whole. They began to see Muslims as enemies, as dangerous, and as terrorists. The book provides its readers with a vital understanding of the Muslim world without the sensationalized concepts created by misunderstandings, misinformation, and misconceptions that we have created in the light of various terrorist acts. This book allows us deeper insights without the stigma of fear and caution where we can readily understand them as what they deserve to be understood.

Journey into Islam by Akbar Ahmed is more or less an anthropological account of the world of contemporary Islam. In a way it serves as academic literature since it has credible and sound anthropological bases but at the same time also serves as critical work that discusses the changing times in relation the dominant Islamic Dogmas and ideologies. They travelled around the world and spoke to Ordinary Muslim individuals who answered their questions and provided them with the information they needed to better understand the Muslim world. It depicts Islam as closer to what it actually is and pushes us further away from the ideas about Muslim and Islam that were created for us. Those that were created for us were brought about by fear and shock at the events that had happened in the 911 attack and this book allows its readers to better understand the relationship of the Islamic world and the international society before and after this event.

He also discusses the different events that have changed the worlds view of the Islamic community as a whole. He discusses the struggles of Islam against itself, globalization, also he discusses the clash among the different civilizations. The book is a wonderful eye opener that depicts the Islam community as individuals separate from those we have labeled as enemies and terrorists. It does a good job of separating the two very different conceptions of Muslims where the ones who advocate violence were shown to be those who were once said to be the minorities but because reaction of the world against them or rather their Muslim brothers, and their religion. They described it as being under attack, where many of them decided to take arms and defend it. This growing dissatisfaction between the Muslim world and the rest of the world is the reason why there are growing number individuals joining Islamic militant movements.

Each side of this argument, primarily that of the United states and the war against their Muslim brothers, have been rationalized in order to legitimize violent action as a reaction to the actions of the United states which made the Islamic issue blow out of proportion because of its internationalization where the usual local struggle between the three Islamic groups were brought at a bigger context to be fought in a bigger arena.

The book claims that there are still those who want peace not through violence and war but peace through acceptable means such as harmony, cohabitation and synthesis. There are still individuals who, despite being treated unfairly and with discrimination still wish to attain peace with the outside world. These individuals, the majority of Muslims, are a dwindling population. There is a shift in the thinking of the Muslim societies. From a passive and defensive stance, they are becoming more aggressive and offensive in the way they view the aggression of the world around them. It now becomes apparent that we ourselves have created this monster we are currently facing now but it is still not too late for change. The Muslim world is still perceptive to bridge the gap that was created when we attacked them.

This work on Muslim contemporary civilization may perhaps have a common ground with other readings in the semester in its theme of multiculturalism and tolerance with other religions and cultures. There are different perspectives that allow us to view the world that we live in where we can only choose for ourselves which to believe. Some perspectives are more defensive than others. Others are more discriminatory. There are even those that seem to be neutral and more understanding of our current time and situation. Tolerance and understanding becomes the key in order to better understand and peacefully live together in harmony. The readings in this semester show how much misconceptions, misinformation and misunderstandings can destroy the relationship between societies and cultures.

This work provides scholars in general an unprecedented understanding of the Muslim contemporary world. It gives answers to questions we have long thought to have no other answer than that of aggression and violence. We can now look at the world of Islam as a word much as our own, where when someone has wronged another, the common reaction is to defend it or, if damage has already been done, a call for vengeance emerges. Through this book, individuals come to realize that the growing problem of non-Muslim societies in these contemporary times is that of the misunderstandings that cause us to act against them that caused them in turn to do acts against us. The book provides an alternative to violence, and that alternative is through dialogue.

The book was targeted towards individuals who may be able to make a change with this growing gap between the Muslim population and the non-Muslim population. This includes political, spiritual and charismatic leaders whose ideas and beliefs are looked up to by their constituents. It is directed to individuals who can change the minds and beliefs of other people about each others people and cultures. It aims to influence individuals who think about the current situation in whose bases are from misconceptions, misinformation and misunderstandings aggravate it.

It is also directed at individuals who have political power over Islam and Muslim related policies in order for them to better understand the current situation in light of the thoughts, sentiments and emotions of the Ordinary Muslim and not through their own narrow views of the situation. This is a book that aims that these policy makers are able to better address this growing problem in a way that is acceptable and lasting for both parties.

This is a work that is designed in order to both inform the readers as well as challenge dominant current thinking about the matter. This work is designed to push forth the idea that the Muslim community should not be regarded as the enemy rather they should be seen as a people who were being attacked and their action are only in response to what has been done to them. It provides us the views and comments from the grassroots level where the information is raw and un-manipulated that can help us understand why they were doing what they were doing, saying what they were saying as well as thinking what they were thinking. It challenges the current dominant thinking that the Muslims and their religion are all enemies that need to be feared or cautioned against. This kind of thinking is destructive against them since it will lead to discrimination and further feelings of being attacked that can only aggravate the situation.

As a writer, I view this text as a standard text which has solid anthropological foundations and should be treated as a serious reference for the serious issues that it tackles. I could not see it as a fringe opinionated text since it is simply a reflective account of the individuals that they have spoken to where they have shown that there is similar thoughts or perhaps a dominant ideology that are circulating among them which is also present in our society. The book is an extraordinary book that destroys barriers and provides us an opportunity to builds bridges among the cultures to promote understanding and harmony. It may be unfair for the team and individuals who participated in this research to simply dismiss this work as opinion.

I believe that the reason why the author chose to write about this topic is because of the growing gap between the Muslim society and the non-Muslim society. He shares to us that there is a growing problem in the United States and the Muslim population throughout the world because of the labels each of them have given each other. It became his task as a scholar, an intellectual, as a Muslim and also as member of a bigger society to stop or at least give light to the current situation through their study. He shares to us that he felt that it was his responsibility, and also the responsibility of thinking individuals to make sense of the situation and provide answered to the questions no one cares to ask.

I think that as a Muslim, it hurt Dr. Ahmed to see himself and his people being treated unfairly and unjustly. It may have also hurt him to see that there is growing dissatisfaction and distrust among the two cultures that he loves the most. This writer thinks that it hurt him to see that the culture he loved and culture that he had pinned his hopes upon to be the one who will be able to help the situation has created a barrier against each other that prevents them from developing and understanding each other. Another reason may also be that he has become tired of the situation of ambiguity that refuses to bring out questions and prevents understanding about why these situations are happening and why do they continue to proliferate in these times. We can see that this is a topic close to his heart and it seemed that he simply wants a solution to the problem that the world is currently facing.

Though it is still too early to determine whether or not the work is useful or not since there are still no observable effects that can be used as basis for evaluation, the work is a hopeful alternative to the idea of violence being the answer to this conflict. The concept of dialogue being the answer for decreasing the gap between the two cultures is actually a very promising one since those who are sympathizers to the Militant Muslim Movements but are not directly affected by the war can still be convinced through conversation. It is when they no longer feel that they are attacked and discriminated against that they may be able to lose interest in the militant movement altogether. Though it may affect the views of many Muslim sympathizers it would still not be able to address the matter and issues arising from public policy against the Muslim population since this already lies not in the academe but lies primarily in the field of politics.

Being such we can say that the project is truly a success based on the objective of providing a better understanding with regards to Islam and the Muslim population. The book sufficiently discusses the views of different Muslim individuals but it is this writers opinion that it could have been better if Dr Ahmed included the thoughts and sentiments of the student assistants who went with him in order to better provide the message of an opinionated work. Though it was sufficiently presented and the idea that he had a team of skilled American student assistants with him, it lacks weight since it feels like the thoughts and sentiments of the books primarily come from him.

Nicolas Thomas Wright, also known as N.T. Wright was born on 1 December 1948. He is the Bishop of Durham in the Church of England and is one of the greatest learners of the New Testament. His academic works has usually been published under his shortened name N. T. Wright. But the most fundamental works What St Paul Really Said and Simply Christian are announced under more informal name of Tom Wright.

The book Simply Christian by N.T. Wright is very easy to read. The contention of the work is also easy. God created our world and something is false and untrue with how things are, according to the sin. Jesus Christ has to perform a saving operation on the Earth by setting the world to rights. The basic part of this story is Christians.

The admirers of the book are both believers and atheistic people. Book is written in a challenging and understandable way, so that Wright created his fiction in three parts. In the first part the author layouts 4 echoes that trace at theism, which definitely mean the Christian God. The equivalents for these four echoes are our longing for justice, our wish for relationships, our appreciation of beauty and the universal expression of spirituality. In the second part author enlighten us into the main Christian theology. The last third part of the Wrights book teaches how modern Christian should live his or her life today.

Wright clarified that the 4 echoes do not exactly appeal to God to any God, let alone the Christian God.  At best, they wave their arms in a rather general direction, like someone in a cave who hears an echoing voice but has no idea where its coming from. (55) One of the most controversial Wrights idea is that God was his juncture of heaven and earth traversing in a different ways. If our vision of heaven would be the presence of God then it does the matter. Actually we are in the presence of God everywhere in corporate worship, while praying etc. There are a great many of the others ways in which we are in Gods subsistence. The author makes an attack on pantheism and deism. Unfortunately the understanding of Christianity is sometimes deistic. 

For a proper comprehension of New Testament it is necessary to understand Jesus in Wrights opinion. Christianity is all about the belief that the living God, the fulfillment of all his promises and as the climax of the story of Israel, has accomplished all this the finding, the saving, the giving of new life in Jesus. (92)  There are two branches that can be very useful to apologetics are what can we know about Jesus and can we trust the gospels.  Tom Wright is on the edge of historical learning. His work on defending the faith from attacks is awesome. He is doing his work by making accurate and rational historical analysis. 

Two chapters of his book are dedicated to Holy Spirit, which is the main power of his work. Every time Wright is holding the focus on the accent of Holy Spirit and God. The two walk together hand in hand.  We cant talk about them apart The point of the Spirit is to enable those who follow Jesus to take into all the world the news that he is Lord, that he has won the victory over the forces of evil, that a new world has opened up, and that we are to help to make it happen.  (122)

The third chapter is merely dedicated to prayer, glory, the story and the task, Lords house and the new creation. This branch was very profitable. These are all methods that Lord has invokes his nation to bring heaven on earth, or to call it in another way the kingdom of God. The author annotates that heaven on the earth came when Jesus was baptized. And the saving work that was done by Jesus Christ together with Holy Spirit gives us the chance to live our lives as a new people in new creation.
Here are some citations that clarify our notion of church and its task on the earth that belong to Tom Wright, written in the bookthe church was called to bring the transformative new of Gods rescuing justice to the whole creation. (200) The body is more than merely an image of unity-in-diversity its a way of saying that the church is called to do the work of Christ, to be the means of his action for the world. (201)

The theme of mission of the church is opened in the last chapter. Also we find conclusions to the whole book summarizing all the thoughts of the author. To work for a healing, restorative justice every Christian is called to work, at every level of life, for a world in which reconciliation and restoration are put into practice, and so to anticipate that day when God will indeed put everything to rights. (226)

When we have good personal relations with God we are seeking love and forgiveness. We accustom this with one another. After all the church have to adore and encourage a passion for a beauty. We are called to be part of Gods new creation, called to be agents of that new creation here and now.  We are called to model and display that new creation in symphonies and in family life, in restorative justice and poetry, in holiness and service to the poor, in politics and painting. (236)

The book Simply Christian written by great theologist and scholar Tom Wright is the book for every Christian. Great many of the problematic and controversial questions are enlighten in this book and number of people will definitely find the answers on their numerous questions.

From Abraham, traditionally dated 1812 BCE until the Babylonian exile (586-537 BCE), the story of Judaism divides into distinct periods beginning with the Patriarchal period from Abraham to Moses. This was followed by the Exodus, (1312 BCE), then by the settlement or re-settlement of Canaan. Next came the confederate period under charismatic judges, which was followed by the United Kingdom (1047-931 BCE). The next period, the divided kingdom, ended when the two kingdoms were conquered in 720 and 586 BCE respectively. The Babylonian Exile followed the second fall. Each phase contributed building blocks to the construction of Jewish identity, adding to how Jews understood their duty and responsibilities, their relationship with G-d and of their faith. It was during the exile that much of the written tradition developed and foundations were laid, in the synagogues through reflection on the experience of faith that eventually allowed Judaism to survive loss of Temple and land in 70CE. The particularity of covenant, the concept that began with Abraham, found universal expression in the hope of global peace, justice and a better world for all.

Abraham Judaisms Seminal Personality
Abraham is Judaisms first Patriarch, a seminal figure in the religions history.. Historians question how much of the Biblical account is reliable or even if he really existed. Abrahams story starts in Genesis chapter 12. Genesis 1-12 deals with a type of universal history, with creation, human origins, the spread of tribes and languages. In genesis 12 there is a shift in focus, from the general to the particular, to Abraham, his family and heirs. Abraham may be a composite figure but most scholars agree that he emerged from the world of Semitic tribes on the edge on the upper arm of the Fertile Crescent (Feiler 20). Presumably surrounded by paganism, Abraham heard G-ds voice telling him to travel with his family to an unknown destination. G-d would give him and them land (Genesis 12 1). His heirs would be numerous and all people would be blessed through them (12 3). This developed into the idea of a promised land, of being a chosen people in a covenant with God, marked by circumcision (Genesis 17). In return for G-ds blessing and the land, Abraham and his heirs were to obey G-d. It was not until old age that Abraham (originally Abram), settled in Canaan, the Promised Land and his wife, Sarah had a son, Isaac, although Abraham had earlier fathered Ishmael through a servant (Genesis 16). Isaac married Rebekah (Genesis 26 20) and their sons were Jacob and Esau. Jacob married Rachel and Leah and they had twelve sons, for whom twelve tribes of Hebrews were later named. The brothers sold Joseph into slavery, because they were jealous of him. In Egypt, after a time in prison (although he was innocent) Joseph, who had a gift for interpreting dreams, ended up solving Pharaohs dreams and predicting that seven years of plenty would be followed by seven years of drought. Pharaoh put Joseph in charge of preparing for the famine and a reunion with his family followed when they traveled to Egypt to buy food, hearing that Egypt had stored up provisions. They had had no knowledge about the famine. Isaac (renamed Israel) and his family (soon known as Hebrews) relocated to Egypt. After Joseph and the Pharaohs death, the Hebrew people were enslaved. Had G-d forgotten them Had G-d not promised them their land in perpetuity

Egypt and Exodus Moses
Historians argue whether monotheism began with Abraham or with Moses or whether both men were actually henotheists, that is, they recognized one supreme God but did not deny other Gods existence (Christian 15). When Moses is told (Exodus 20 5) to refrain from worshipping other Gods this implies that other Gods were thought to exist. Moses life is fleshed out in later Jewish writing, such as the Talmud. The Bibles details are brief. However, he played a critical role as Law Giver and Liberator and as the hero of what becomes the central event in Jewish history, the Exodus. G-d heard the Hebrews prayers by commissioning Moses to be their liberator, Moses. Pharaoh had heard a rumor that a Hebrew slave would challenge him, so ordered all male Hebrew babies killed (Exodus 1 22). Moses was saved, growing up in the royal household. Later, having learned of his real identity, he killed an Egyptian overseer who was beating a slave. Exiled at 40, Moses became a shepherd. Then, aged 80, G-d spoke to him through a bush that burned but was not consumed, identifying himself as G-d of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob (Exodus 3 6). Moses, assisted by his brother, Aaron, challenged Pharaoh to free the slaves. A series of plagues, ending with the death of first-born Egyptian boys, convinced him to do so. At night, without time to let their bread rise, the Hebrews fled. This would be commemorated as Pesach Passover  the angle of death had passed over the Hebrews houses. G-d saved G-ds people.

Pharaoh changes his mind and sent his army after the slaves. However, G-d opened up a sea for them to cross but let the waters flood back and drown the pursuing army. It took forty years to reach Canaan. This was a time of testing. During this period, G-d gave Moses the Torah. Orthodox Jews believe that Moses received the whole of the Torah (Five Books) and the oral Torah (later written down as Mishnah). The Torah contained detailed instructions for building an Ark and a Tabernacle to contain the Torah, rules of conduct and a code of ethics. The Hebrew people were to become holy, like G-d (Leviticus 20 26). By refraining from eating certain foods, by observing the Sabbath as a holy day, they would become a special people. They were to keep apart from others on returning to Canaan (Exodus 34 16), yet strangers were to be treated hospitably, since they knew what it was like to be oppressed (Deuteronomy 10 19). Remembering that they had been slaves until G-d liberated them becomes a strong motif. Some have speculated that Moses was really an Egyptian who adapted the monotheism of Akhenaton and the traditions of the Patriarchs was invented to create a myth of origins. Circumcision, too, may have been borrowed from Egypt  (Freud 29-31).

Abrahams story contributed the notion of having a covenant with G-d, who was to be obeyed. Moses story fleshes out the covenant with content  613 commandments. Jews believe that the Torah contains 613 laws (not ten)  613 is symbolic number. There are 365 instances of thou shalt not, one for each day of the year and 248 of thou shall, one for every bone in the body according to the ancient count (Wylen 83-4). Keeping the commandments  which non-Jews are not required to do  separates the Jewish people from everything impure and unholy. Monotheism (even if Moses was a henotheist) is closely associated with him, proclaimed by the Schema at Deuteronomy 6. This becomes a badge of Jewish identity  worn in the tefillin, contained in the mezuzah above doorposts. The command not to worship other Gods becomes a constant refrain  one that does not feature between Abraham and Moses, when the matter of many versus one God was simply not an issue (Christian 15).

The Confederacy and the time of the Judges
Under Joshua, Moses successor as leader, Canaan was conquered. The 12 tribes settled in land apportioned for them (except for Priests and Levis, assistants) and a loose confederacy developed. There was no system for a permanent federal leader. When crises occurred, G-d raised a judge. The High Priest (descended from Aaron) performed the sacrifices as detailed in Torah at a series of High Holy Places, setting up the Tabernacle.  The judges held court on the same circuit. The theme at this time is bout being a people apart, not imitating others. Toward 1000 BCE, however, the people demanded that G-d appoint a King, so that they would have a permanent leadership system like others nations (I Samuel 8 5). Initially G-d objected, saying that he was their king and that a king would exploit and oppress them. Borgman comments that the desire to be like other nations flies in the face of prior narrative emphasis on Israels bering set apart from other nations (23). Then G-d agreed. Saul was anointed King. Sauls reign proved a failure, confirming what God had said. Perhaps G-d allowed Saul to rule because he knew that Saul would prove deficient as an object lesson to Israel against the advisability of monarchical leanings (Borgman 21).

The United and Divided Kingdoms
David and Solomon, his son, were second and third king of the United Kingdom. They emerge as models of Kingship, close to Gods ideal. Solomon built the Temple in Jerusalem, which had become Davids capital. Ritual shifted exclusively to the Temple. After Solomons death (931 BCE), a dispute over succession split the kingdom into two Judea (with Jerusalem) was in the South, Israel the North. A series of kings follow. Their reigns are judged by how well they matched up to David and Solomon. The area ruled by Saul was small. David expanded this. Solomon, renowned for his wisdom, ruled over the largest territory of any of the kings. This period also saw the prophets, who were men called by G-d to speak truth to power, hold kings to account. They must rule justly. They must not oppress orphans, widows and strangers. Mere worship is worthless unless accompanied by sincere inner piety and external acts of charity (Amos 5). If the people worshipped other Gods, G-d would punish them. In 720 or 722, the Northern kingdom fell to Assyria. The ten tribes living there were dispersed into exile throughout the Assyrian empire. The Prophet Jeremiah warned the South that they trusted falsely in the Temple. If they continued to oppress the stranger, the alien, the fatherless, the widow and to steal, murder and commit adultery (Jeremiah 7 6-9) they would lose their land. The North had fallen because the king and people had failed to keep the covenant. The South was not immune from defeat either, if people continued to worship false Gods and neglected justice. Possession of the land was conditional on obeying G-d.

Exile
Neither king nor people listened. 586 BCE, Jerusalem fell to the Babylonians. This was soon understood as divine punishment. The remaining two tribes were taken into exile, although some went elsewhere  to Egypt, for example. Jeremiah, who was not exiled, wrote a letter of advice to the Babylonian exiles. Unlike the Egyptian captivity, although exiled in Babylon, many Jews prospered there. In fact, Jewish life thrived in Babylon. Babylon (later known as Iraq) continued to be an important center of Jewish learning for many centuries. There, the Babylonian Talmud was written in 500 CE. Scholars believe that much of the tradition was written down at this time, when the Torah reached its final form. Scholars think that many editors contributed to composing the Bible (Torah, the writings and the prophets),that different strands or schools can be identified. This is known as the documentary hypothesis. Orthodox Jews believed that the Torah pre-existed before Moses received it, that G-d used Torah as his instrument in creating the world. During the exile, three daily prayers substituted for the sacrifices in the Temple. Tradition later said that Abraham established the morning prayers, Isaac the afternoon and Jacob the evening (Goldhill 92). Many believe that the synagogue as a venue for study and possibly for congregational worship developed in Babylon, although Jews in Egypt built a Temple there. In Babylon, developments in ritual and worship did not need a cultic center but were of a type that could be practiced anywhere (Albertz 109). Albertz thinks that synagogues cannot be proved to have developed in the exile but says that forms of worship evolved in which the focus was no longer on sacrificial offering but on the word (readings from scripture, confession of faith, prayer) and that these forms represent one of the roots of later synagogue worship (109).

Exile was a time of reflection. G-d would restore the Jews to their land, if they truly repented. The Prophet Ezekiel spoke of dry bones being revived (Ezekiel 37). Jeremiah said that the exiles should plant vineyards, marry off their children, work and pray for the peace and prosperity of the city whatever city they were living in (29 4-7). Jews could be faithful to their covenant with God outside Israel, without a functioning Temple. By keeping the commandments, contributing to human knowledge and prosperity and world peace, they could inherit the blessing of Genesis 12. Other people would also be blessed. One day, Jerusalem would be restored, becoming a beacon of peace for all people. All people would gather on Mount Zion (Jerusalem), worshipping the One and Only God (Isaiah 60). Some spoke of a Messiah, a son of David, who would free the Jews and inaugurate an era of global peace. A great battle between good and evil might be fought.

Conclusion
When Cyrus of Persia conquered Babylon, he allowed Jews who wished to return to Jerusalem to rebuild the Temple. In the post-exile period, Jews gained quasi independence but they later lost this under the Romans. By then, synagogues were wide spread. Jews lived throughout the Mediterranean world. Many did not feel the need to live in Palestine, as their promised land was then called. One influential school, the Pharisees, had little time for the Temple. They encouraged inner purity and were based in the synagogues. After 70CE, due to a revolt  one of many  against Rome, Jews were expelled from Palestine.  The Pharisees, with their emphasis on Torah and on the experience of the exile, enabled Rabbinical Judaism to evolve from what is often called Biblical religion. Without a functioning priesthood, prayer and Torah study (and later study of Talmud) became crucial to Jewish faithfulness. The people would fill the world with wisdom.

Carl Hoch Jr.s The Role of Women in the Church A Survey of Current Approaches, was an explication of several Biblical passages, mostly coming from the New Testament and with emphasis given on their original Greek texts, that discussed the importance of women in the churchs apostolic era, and its implications in contemporary Western Christianity.  Most explicit in the article is his categorizing of the major approaches to the roles of women in the church, specifically those belonging to non-evangelical egalitarian, the evangelical egalitarian, and hierarchical (Hoch, 1987, p. 242).     

Likewise, although Hoch employed external researches and articles such as Gilbert Bilezikians (p. 245), Wayne Grudems (p. 249), and Gordon Fees (p. 245), it is apparent that Hoch refused to make any substantial conclusion on his treatise pertaining to the importance of women in the modern Western Christian church.  His suggestion, that every effort should be expended by those within the church to grapple with the issue in an attempt to reachbiblical place in the body of Christ (Hoch, 1987, p. 249), clearly displayed his stance of simply being a passive influence on the subject.  Moreover, his employment of questions as his closing argument instead of having a clear and defined position further justifies this claim, as exemplified by his question number eleven, which stated, What contributions can women make to theology, guidance, supervision, and organization in the church (Hoch, 1987, p. 250).

In all, Hochs technique of allowing his readers for self-inquiry as a result of his article, instead of the usual spoon-feeding of answers and arguments, resulted in a more effective manner of awakening the readers sensibilities regarding the subject matter.  It resulted in a need to further explore the intricacies surrounding the religious roles of women in the modern era, in relation to their supposed importance during the apostolic times.

Personal Views
In more recent times, the precept of male exclusivity in the hierarchy in the leadership of the church is being put into public attention.  An ever-increasing call for the equality of gender influence, this time specific on religious leadership, has been evidenced through numerous books and articles that delved on this subject for the past five years (Hoch 1987, p. 242).  Hochs article, The Role of Women in the Church A Survey of Current Approaches, although passive in nature, is another contributor to the overall consciousness of gender equality that is being propagated in various religious factions, especially in the Christian world. 

While it may be too premature to be declaring certain Christian hierarchical innovations, perhaps it is sagacity to observe that women are due of certain religious importance, especially in areas of apostleship where they had once been important instruments in the Christian movement.  As such, the women in the New Testament prayed, prophesied, engaged in benevolent works, hosted meetings of the church, and were fellow-workers with the apostle Paul (Hoch, 1987, p. 244), signifying not only their importance in the ancient Christian churches, but more importantly on their direct influential participation in the movement.

Perhaps what Hoch and other authors of the same genre espouses is for women to reclaim their original status in the church the very status that Christ himself supposedly promoted and supported during his earthly ministry.  Perhaps also, they envision a modern Christian era wherein the original hierarchical order of leadership will be re-established.  This will mean a total restructuring of the norms that have been set for generations, and will require for society to reconsider its regard on women, in general terms.  If indeed we are ready for these socio-religious innovations to occur, will only be known in the manner that the society itself will fight for these changes to be instigated. 

Karl Barth was a Swiss theologian born on May 10, 1886 in Basel and he spent his childhood life in Bern. His interest in theology was a nurtured from a tender age following the participation of his father in church ministries. He married Nelly Hoffman with whom they had a total of five children. Barths theological education dates back to Bern where he first accessed religious materials.

To further his education, Karl went to Berlin, Tubingen and Marburg, where he had an opportunity to be taught by Adolf von Harnack and Wilhelm Herrmann whose theologies were of great inspiration. These professors embraced the Protestantism theology which fostered the understanding of God through the appreciation of His work. The emergence of World War I led to the development of Barths theologies which considered the supremacy of God over all other things. This was an opposition to the theologies of his teachers which allowed the participation in wars.

Karl arrived at this decision after reconsidering the move of his teachers to sign their allegiance to the war plans of the German government of which he was against. Based on his teachings and theological understanding, Barth believed that most churches as preachers were diverting attention from serving God to fulfilling human desires. According to Barth, spreading the word of God in a more objective and non-dogmatic manner serve as the best form of worship,  that is God inclined. It is such beliefs that should guide all mans actions in attempts to understand God and the role of time in salvation, in appreciating Jesus duality, role of sacramental and being born again and how fundamentalism and subjective theological teachings led to escalation of the World wars.

Discussions
The book entitled Church dogmatic written by Karl Barth, gives an insight into the understanding of the theological approaches that the author is embracing. Karl explains his stand on the approach that best suits the delivery of service aimed at glorifying God rather than man-kind. He focuses on Christianity, with emphasis on the Holy Trinity of God to explain his theological stand and religious functions of Gods revelation to human beings. He elaborates how divine revelation is manifested and the effects it may present on human beings.

He questions the approaches to religion, used by other theologians, and opposes the incorporation of different cultures and political movements in the running of the church or the society. The reason he gives for this is that we, as human beings, and sinners before the eyes of God, should be more critical of ours theological approaches to center them on how God will reach at us rather than how we could reach him.

The Biblical teachings are mostly employed by the author in giving reasons for the adoption of this approach of entitling God to supernatural powers. This implies that the consequences of human deeds should never be attributed to the will of God, who is, according to Karl Barths doctrine a loving and peaceful God. Human religion is considered to present problems to the understanding of Gods revelation as well as in the development of theological doctrines.

Based  on the review  of the article entitled Karl Barth  a brief introduction Time and eternity by  Flemming Nielsen it is evident  that the theological school  of thought as depicted by Barth was characterized by  need for logical  thought and objective approach to interpretation of Christian faith , as well as prediction of an end to Christendom.

Barth in case was rather determined to promote theological knowledge that is based on true understanding and interpretation of the scriptures more the issues relating to time, eternity and revelation. Nielsen (3) argues that in the book The Epistle to the Romans,  the author sought to discredit  the protestant culture, more so in relation  to interpretation of time as well as eternal life.
Based on the concept of chronistic, Barth argued that time is something of higher reality as understood by man as God, while eternity is depicted as a dependent time factor that is basically a never-ending  time component. Barth thus had three classifications of time. First, there is  the past time, a bygone  that can only be reflected upon or be forgotten,  but cannot be reversed.

Secondly, there is time of Resurrection and Easter, which is mainly based in the  New Testament (Nielsen, 4). This time is  a very important part of  theology and gospel as it is marked by narratives that give an account of Jesus, His Resurrection and assumption.  This period lasts for about 40 days. The Christians use this time to reflect on the suffering and death of Jesus. The paradox that is a theological debate has it that Jesus public life was not known, but the lent period gave Him more lime light and well as enchantment of His Accessibility. Lastly, there is time period that talks about the human nature   of Jesus and how being God as well as man at the same time were possible.

This is called dual representational aspect (Nielsen, 4). This duality concept has it that by having God represented in Him , it can be argued  that God stayed in the world. On the human side, the duality concept has  it that by coming in human form, it can be deduced   that mankind was represented, through Jesus, to God. Summarily, Barth argued  that the duality idea points out the fact that  if determined as an individual, it I would be  easy for one be elected and allowed  to join God.

The controversies surrounding  the life  and theological teachings of Barth were also evident through his teachings sacramental. Under the theological belief in neo-reformation and preaching of New Word, he argued that  sacramental such as baptism is core ways through  which the word can be spread. Controversy however arose from the argument that an infant cannot receive the word, that is, through baptism as they cannot experience  the real faith of being born again. According to him, it beats logic to argue that  the parents can agree on behalf of an infant for the child to be baptized. This was viewed as an agreement through  proxies  that may not enhance spread  of the word and second  birth.

Mangina, in his book entitled Karl Barth theologian of Christian witness tries to give an insight into the life of Karl Barth and his theological approaches. Karl Berth was a theologian who developed theological approach which was based on the prioritizing God before all movements and ideological programmes.
He never embraced the incorporation of cultures or political influences in the definition of God contrary to what most of the theologians of that time believed in. He was thus more of a rebel who sought to act and think independently. Apart from Manginas arguments, similar sentiments have been echoed by Nielsen (3) who argues  that Barths analysis and critique  of theological  teachings and doctrines were carried out without any influence from the mythic arguments. As such, mythic issues relating time, as revealed  by purported Gods interactions with man as revealed by narratives were considered by Barth as immaterial. These myths, termed by Barth as sagas were viewed as misleading and only sound  true if  the presentations or supposedly factual messages are confined  within a given epoch as well as space.

The author explains that Karl was able to influence the ideologies of other theologians and thus fostering the adoption of this theological approach. However, many people considered his ideologies to violate the world religious order, and incapable of serving the modern era since there rapid social changes and cultural integrations were realized after the World War II. Karl Barths theology was regarded by many as a something of the past as it embraced the use of the bible in explaining most of his theological aspects.

Korringe explains the problems that are associated with the adoption of catholic theological doctrines and thus the adoption of hegemony. This book tries to explore the oppression of the people that emancipates from the dictatorship forms of governments instituted in place. These forms of governments are a product of varied theological doctrines adopted following the emergence of World War II, by different religious groups aimed at strengthening their nations army. In spite of the decision of various religious groups to adopt theological doctrines that allows the participation of Christians in wars, some theologians such as Karl Barth were against the move.