Religion and Theology

In my view, the information presented in this media article indeed represents issues of racism. The article represents Muslims in an awkward context, particularly the Muslims who were involved in the Swiss referendum. The article presents the reason of the referendum as though the Muslims were posing a threat to the entire Swiss population. Although the author expresses wonder of a majority 57 voting to ban the symbol of the Muslim residents, this referendum presents a lot of prejudice and racist themes against the community of Islam. Matters of religion have taken a center stage in the entire article where different groups have been presented as independent entities within the same locality due to religion and the faith of each and every person. The Swiss referendum is a very painful irony and more in particular to the Muslim community (Sener, par. 1-3).

Everything related to Islam was set as a target n the Swiss referendum. The context in which this article is set highlights the negativities in the Islamic faith. We can never know the reason as to why the author of the article slightly touches on other religions like the Roman Catholic Church, the Buddhists and concentrate more about the Islamic community. Bosnia by being independent in this context is considered not natural just because there are fears that it would be the only country with Muslims in the entire Europe. The European officials though in a painful way were devoted in restoring Christianity in Europe. The feelings which come by reading this article do not provoke any feeling of sympathy to the Muslim community. There is a reason given for the way things have turned out for the Muslims and thus justifies the reason for the kind of suffering they have been found to go through (Sener, par. 22-5).  This is especially in matters of arms possession as discussed concerning Bosnia. The European officials are convicted that an increased arms possession in such Muslim environments will only lead to bloodshed.

The current president of France in the article does not really seem to care much about the Swiss referendum but instead is in the fore front of promoting Christian culture in what for some time now can be termed as a democratic state. The agony continues when the chief mosque in town is damaged with graffiti. This is a great insult to the honor and pride that the Muslim community has for its worship center. The people protest by writing on the mosque that the nation of France is solely for the French. The anti-Muslim movement apparently is being allowed and supported all through as the reported in the article. Obamas campaign for presidency as well as the use of the identity of Muslim is represented as an insult also. There is a feeling that there is a war of the Muslim against all. There is a problem in the relationship between the Americans and Islam that is evident in the article. This has shown negative feelings towards the Muslim community where the young Americans of the Muslim faith are not accepted to serve in Congress as interns (Sener, par. 3-4).

Sarah Palin in the article refers to Muslim as those opposed to Christ and that the alliance between neo-conservatives and affiliates of the Evangelical churches of the south is termed as unholy. There is a perception held that the Christian faith is more superior that the Muslim faith. The matter is so serious and has seen the inclusion of these struggles in the political arena. This is how racism has become serious as we read down the article. Calls have been made from reverend Franklin Graham and his associate to ban the religion of Islam as they claim it is violent as preaching goes on against them similar to the ones of the ancient times against the blacks, the Asians among others in the United States of America (Sener, par. 5).

Racism in British Newspapers
The newspapers read in England today portray particular British Muslims in situations that emphasize problems (Poole, par. 1-3). These are more in particular like in the case of the bombing in 2005. Those that declare publicly that they are Muslims have been termed as a threat to the society. There is a problem that is shown in the purpose for which British newspapers can encode implications to arguments designed to bring out preferred meanings. The press in Britain makes use of such words like Islam and Muslim in the same meaning as terrorism to identify criminals through affiliations of religion (Allen, pp. 23 -33). This entirely gives a misrepresentation of culture even though reading is entirely an individual as well as an isolated endeavor.

There have been cries inside and outside the Muslim community to urge reporters in newspapers to enforce and make an adaptation of a higher commitment of fairness as well as balance in commentaries together with reportage (Said, pp. 138 - 213). The press in England however should not be regarded as the reason for the conflict that has amounted to racism but has indeed played a significant duty in propagating the emotional rhetoric as well as hatred.  When the audience identifies with the person or the source of information, there is a likelihood of an identification made with the message consequently. In fact, this is a misconception as well as a lack of knowledge of the culture of an individual as well as religion that produces ignorance due to prejudice held by people (Aisha, pp. 46-66). The society in which we live is a multi-cultural as well as multi-racial although it is very imperative not to easily agree with the notion. It is therefore of great importance if people could learn more about the beliefs, cultures and ways of life of each other.

Annotated Bibliography
Aisha Ijaz a Tahir Abbas (2010), (Re) turn to religion and radical Islam From Abbas T (eds), Muslim Britain, Communities under pressure, London  Zed books, 2010, pp. 46 - 73

The author presents the results of a research of the changes in attitude that parents have had in the learning and education of the young Muslims in England. There are a lot of differences that are evident through this research work concerning the education of Muslims and other matters pertinent to marriage. The author presents very difficult matters of religion and identity amidst the Muslim communities as perceived in the entire land of Britain.

There is a picture of racist activities occurring in the report that is presented by the author in this case. This research work is very crucial in understanding how the general public in England views the Islamic world by making sure that they have limited chances to learning and education more specifically as seen with the young women Muslims.

Allen, Chris, From race to religion  The new face of discrimination in Abbas T (eds), Muslim Britain, Communities under pressure, London  Zed books, 2005 pp. 23-33

Allen is a writer in academics, commentator as well as a blogger and at times can be found in the broadcast house. In this piece of work, the author shows how the degree of discrimination has become very high through the making of preferred meaning in the British resources. The Muslim faith here has been connected to terrorism and security threats as the media presents through newspaper articles.

This is a very good piece of work that can be used to state out clearly how transition goes through from the messenger and the reader to the message and the reader. The implications made in the media sources have been propagated into the mind of the reader which takes this as the true picture of the Islam community.

Krueger, Joachim, Personal Beliefs and Cultural stereotypes about racial characteristics, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1996, 71, 536-546

Krueger presents the beliefs that people have towards others what he refers to as social stereotypes. This is the beliefs held concerning the culture and practice of a particular group of people by others. The author indicates the possibility of either having the wrong or right impression about a particular person or group is depended on the source of information which led to that conclusion.

People tend to take to their culture and orientation as the best or superior compared to others. The beliefs and convictions that an individual has towards another may be strongly attached to that person to a point where they cannot be revoked no matter what effort is applied. This could be a dangerous aspect if the belief is not true.
  
Poole, Elizabeth, Media representation and British Muslims (April 2000). 19 Oct. 2005. 13th Apr. 2010 httpwww.al-bab.commediaarticlespoole0005.htm

Poole lecturers in the area of Media as well as Cultural Studies in the Humanities together with the school of Social Science, in the UKs Staffordshire University. He presents the debates that have been there concerning how the media has given Muslim a negative image. He asserts that the various experiences of oppression and colonialism have led to political Islam. The west has therefore made Islam an enemy as a result according to Poole. The media as presented here seem to take over the story that Islam is a threat to the West.

The representation of Islam is consequently seen as predominantly negative as well as reductive. The image put across is that the mention of the word Islam or Muslim implies terrorism or a threat.  There is increased fear of the Muslim community that the media has impacted into the society and the people have essentially held convictions in that as concluded in this work.

Said, Edward.  HYPERLINK httpwww.amazon.co.ukCovering-Islam-Media-Experts-Determinedp009959501Xrefcm_cr_pr_orig_subj Covering Islam How the Media and the Experts Determine How We See the Rest of the World  USA Vintage 1981, pp. 138-213

Basically, Said has covered the manner in which the West views Islam. The western writers and the media in general have propagated a certain notion that Muslim is not trustworthy in matters of peace and harmonious existence. This is a very valuable piece of work for any individual with the desire to establish how the West and Islam relate. It gives light into the matters that have led to the false allegations that have been made towards the Muslim community

The writers as Said presents them apparently have a pre-judgment sort of spirit that guides their way in coming up with any information concerning the Islam. In conclusion, Said says that the culture of Muslims has therefore been judged through false misrepresentations by the media.
ener, Aktrk  Mujeeb, R. Khan, How Western Anti-Muslim Bigotry became Respectable The Historic Roots of a Newly Resilient Ideology 03 Jan. 2010. 13th Apr. 2010.httpwww.todayszaman.comtz-webnews-197361-109-centerhow-western-anti-muslim-bigotry-became-respectable-the-historic-roots-of-a-newly-resilient-ideologybr-i-by-i-brsener-akturk-mujeeb-r-khancenter.html

As a postdoctoral fellow, in Davis Center for Russian as well as Eurasian Studies, Sener has really focused on the challenges and suffering that the Muslim community has faced in the politics as well as societies of Europe. The author captures the image portrayed by all leaders in Europe from one generation to another and how the entire Muslim community has been regarded as a threat to peace all over Europe.

The work here is very comprehensive giving detailed information that can be useful in determining the origin of the plight of Muslims  and how hatred has been propagated all through towards the Muslim community.

No subject is more fraught with controversy than the relation of women and Islam. On one side of the debate there exists the widespread perception that the faith oppresses and even persecutes women on the other there are arguments about cultural authenticity, about the rights of women to assert themselves in ways that differ from the modes of female self-assertion current in non-Muslim societies. The issue is complicated by the interaction of history, religion, culture, and politics. Historically the patriarchal family and the extended networks of kinship connected with it have proved to be among the most durable social structures in Muslim societies, far more durable than structures built around professional association or class interest. The role of religion in sustaining these structures is not entirely clear. Islamic law privileges the family over other institutions the laws of inheritance, favoring males over females, are written in the Quran along with other discriminatory provisions, such as the testamentary inferiority of females in certain court proceedings. The law, however, is not always a reliable guide to actual social practice slavery and concubinage, widely practiced in pre-colonial times, is also the subject of detailed legal provisions and though permitted under the Shariah, both have disappeared from Muslim societies. Unlike the hijab or veil they are not among the shibboleths insisted upon by todays Islamists. Protection of the patriarchal family and the symbolic capital it holds in the shape of female chastity is deeply embedded in the semantics of Islam the word haram shares the same root with harim -- the part of the household reserved for women -- and mahram -the kinship group to which a woman is forbidden sexually by law, and within which she is free to associate. (Appley, Halliwell, 7). The duality of the manifest and the hidden fundamental to the Quranic approach to the divine is suggestively linked in at least one passage to sexuality, with the female pudenda associated with the hidden aspect of deity. Restrictions on women are intimately bound up with notions of the sacred. As Michael Gilsenan has observed the honour of person and family which is particularly identified with control of womens sexuality, is crucial to the public, social identity of men (qtd. in Ruthven, 400). The same observation applies, a fortiori, in many other parts of the Muslim world. But an obsession with gender and status and its corollary, the assertion of masculine power through violence, is by no means exclusively Islamic. The same patriarchal assumptions are found in non-Muslim Mediterranean societies as well as others further afield. Conversely there are Muslim communities in West Africa and Southeast Asia where matrilineal systems of ownership and inheritance predominate. All of this calls into question the view that Islamic texts and the values they enshrine are of themselves responsible for types of behavior underpinning male supremacism. At the same time there can be no doubt that the public and symbolic role of women lies at the heart of the Islamist discourse. In one polemic after another Islamist writers contrast the virtuous Muslim women with their Western or Westernized counterpart  naked, unchaste, and corrupt, a potent source of fitna or strife.

Women in Social and Religious Life
In the classical traditions the positive value of sexuality is affirmed, but it is also perceived as dangerous and potentially destructive of the social order determined by God. The bias against celibacy prevents the emergence of a distinctive caste of female religious comparable to the nuns and abbesses of the Christian West. The sense that good social order is contingent on regulating sexuality  particularly female sexuality becomes institutionalized. The seclusion of women is justified by fear of female sexual power an atavistic cultural memory, perhaps, of the female deities destroyed by the prophet of triumphant singular God. (Tate, 3)

Gender differences are strongly emphasized, God have created humans (male and female), and any aspect of behavior in dress or comportment that clouds the distinction is discouraged or forbidden. Homosexuality, in this view, is a major sin, a reversal of the natural order, a corruption of mans sexuality and a crime against the rights of females. Men should grow beards in order to distinguish themselves from infidels. Be different from the polytheists, says a hadith in al-Bukharis collection let the beard grow and trim the mustache. It is makruh (disapproved of) to shave the beard or drastically to cut or shorten it, but it is mustahab (commendable) to remove something from its length and breadth if it grows big.

Apart from her husband, if she is married, a womans social circle must be confined, according to traditional interpretations of the law, to female friends and her mahrams  which includes those male members of her extended family whom she cannot marry by law. These are fathers, sons, brothers, foster-brothers, nephews, and male in-laws. Although local customs vary the taboo on female association with men outside the mahram relationship is widespread in Muslim societies from Morocco to south Asia. These patterns, however, are not universal. In parts of South Africa of the Sahara Islamic law has become mixed with local traditions giving women substantially greater rights in marriage and divorce. (Tate, 3) Among Muslims in Southeast Asia there are no traditions of seclusion and elements of matrilineal customs survive even in pious communities. Here the Shariah is seen in terms of religious and ethical duties rather than social practices, where local customary law has priority.

In the Middle East, South Asia and other parts of the Muslim world the extended kinship group sustained by the mahram taboo was basic to the social structure. The contrast with the development of Western societies is striking. In the medieval West the Church sustained deliberate policies against kin-based groups, encouraging distance-marriages, insisting that the Church as the corporate body of Christ transcend and supersede the biological ties of kinship. As the Church was gradually replaced by civil bodies, from cities to trading corporations, class interests and divisions emerged which in due course became the occasion of social conflicts and hence the subject of historical change. Womens emancipation was predicated on the emancipation of men from the bonds of kinship, with profession, trade, or class eventually acting as co-determinants of an individuals identity along with family background. There is no church in Islam to compete with the family as focus of allegiance the individual remained much more closely tied to the bonds of kinship. Women may sometimes have enjoyed an honored and protected position in this system, but their freedom was limited in proportion to their reproductive capacity as genetic carriers and bearers of kinship identity. Today the legacy of the privileged status the family had under the Shariah continues to militate against the assertion of alternative institutions or solidarities based on free association or common purpose. In many Muslim countries, public institutions have been subverted or undermined by the persistence of kinship solidarities examples are the ruling parties in Syria and Iraq, both of which are dominated by kinship groups from sectarian minorities.

The exclusion of women from the public domain in the main Islamic centers inevitably led to their exclusion from the religious domain as well. In Cairo, for example  as described by Edward Lane in the 1820s  women were forbidden to pray alongside men in the mosques because the Muslims are of the opinion that the presence of females inspires a very different kind of devotion from that which is requisite in a place dedicated to the worship of God (qtd. in Ruthven, 73). Female exclusion was reinforced by pollution taboos over menstruation, childbirth, and contact with young children. The hadith collections contain detailed sections on ritual impurities, and it is generally women who are disadvantaged by the rules. Women participate in some Sufi practices and are often associated with visits to the tombs of saints or friends of God  activities often disapproved by the ulama. In the more tradition-bound sections of society female religiosity is more likely to find expression in activities disapproved of by the pious, such as the zar or spirit possession cults still widespread in Egypt and North Africa. Significantly, these spirits are now said to be forcing their hosts to resist the veil baladi (country) women ordered to cover themselves in accordance with Islamist demands are possessed by spirits which cause them to fall sick if they do so.

Islam and Feminism
Muslim feminists argue that it is not Islam as such, but rather reactionary male interpretations of the faith that are invoked to justify patriarchal attitudes. As suggested earlier the logic of this position inevitably comes up against certain discriminatory provisions in the divine text of the Quran. A modernist hermeneutic stating that the Quranic provisions are time contingent rather than absolute becomes necessary before the contradiction between the spiritual and moral equality of women and their legal inequality can be resolved. The argument that a woman giving evidence on a business matter might need assistance from her friend might make sense under pre-modern conditions when most women were illiterate, but as the Quranic rules stand, the testimony of a woman with a higher degree in business administration is only worth half that of an illiterate male. (Dale, 6). Beyond such textual sticking points, however, there are areas where masculine or androcentric interpretations are being contested, particularly in the field of hadith, where the questioning of sources belongs to a time-honoured methodology and are less controversial than taking issue with the text of the Quran. The biggest obstacles facing Muslim feminists are cultural and historical feminism is perceived as coming from a hostile source.

One strategy for defusing the accusation that the Muslim feminist critic of Islamic attitudes is simply a Western-inspired lackey is the indigenous feminist approach adopted by several women writers, notably the Moroccan Fatima Mernissi and the Egyptian-born Leila Ahmed. Both writers see a contradiction between the ethical principles of Islam with its commitment to social justice regardless of gender and the restrictions to which Muslim women became increasingly subjugated. (Dale, 6). For Ahmed the practices sanctioned by Muhammad in the first Muslim society reflect far more positive attitudes than became current during the later Abbasid era, when the practice of concubinage, sanctioned if not encouraged by Islam, became widespread. She believes that if the ethical voice of Islam had been attended to, it would have significantly tempered the extremeandrocentric bias of the law. Access to slaves and concubines led to women being treated as commodities, as upper-class women became increasingly marginalized. Mernissi, adopting a similar line of argument, claims that the women of the Prophets day were relatively free. They participated with men in the public domain, if not in battle, and were active in the early Islamic movement. According to the majority of traditions, Khadija, Muhammads trusted wife, was the first Muslim, the first in Muhammads household to accept that Muhammads messages came from God. After her death Muhammad married many women, some of them for political reasons, others apparently for love. His favorite wife Aisha, daughter of his close companion Abu Bakr became the source of numerous hadiths. She was a major political actor in the civil war or strife (fitna) following the assassination of the third caliph Uthman in 656. Her role as a source of hadiths is so important that in one tradition the Prophet is supposed to have told the Muslims that they received half their religion from a woman. Mernissi documents personal tensions between Aisha and Abu Huraira, a Companion of the Prophet who heads a great many chains of hadith transmitters, seeing in him the source of numerous antifeminist hadiths that eventually gained currency. Mernissis method, as Andrew Rippin points out, shares with that of the Islamists a tendency towards the remythologization of society, with both sides selectively citing the evidence to suit their arguments. (Widhalm, 11)

Conclusion
The symbolism conveyed by veiling may be ambiguous, but there can be no doubt that Muslim women are becoming a force to be reckoned with in the public domain. Even Saudi Arabia, bastion of Islamic sexual apartheid, has witnessed a public demonstration by women protesting against Shariah rulings forbidding them to drive motor vehicles. Among the less affluent labor migration forces changes in the sexual division of labor, with a significant proportion of households now headed by women. The universities are producing more and more female graduates. Challenges to religiously grounded restrictions are inevitable. The signs of change are already apparent. The female vote is reported to have contributed substantially to the unexpected election of Muhammad Khatami to the Iranian presidency in May 1997, on a platform that included an easing of restrictions on women and greater female participation in management of the economy and state. (Widhalm, 11)

Brief history of the Muslim faith
The history of Muslim faith can be traced back to the birth of Mohammad, the major personality in the religion, around the year 570 AD. Mohammad hailed from the clan of Quraish, which was ruling at that time in Mecca. This was a city in the region of Hijaz, north western Arabia. This city was dominated by powerful merchant families. Among these people, the men of Quraish were most dominant. This trend of inhabitation of Mecca by the merchants was due to the fact that this city had become very important during those days especially in terms of trade. This had been brought about by the decline of Arabia (Nawwab et al 2007, Par 1).

Mohammads father died before the boy was born, and his grandfather, who was the head of the clan of Hashim, took over as the male guardian upon his birth. This was because the boys mother, Amina, had died when the boy was six years old. After some time, the grandfather also died and his uncle took over the guardianship according to the custom those days. Mohammad had the opportunity to learn from the hardships of desert life and also acquire the knowledge of rich language which was regarded a pride of the Arabs. He learnt the forbearance and patience required of herdsmen whose life he came to appreciate (Nawwab et al 2007, Par 2).

It was around the year 590 that Mohammad married a merchant widow named Khadijah, whom he had served for some time as her factor. With her, they had two sons, who did not survive, and four daughters (Nawwab et al, 2007 Par 4)

When Mohammad was in his forties, he began to meditate in the caves of Mount Hira, which was just outside Mecca. Then one day while meditating, he heard a voice telling him words proclaim God to be the creator of all men and origin of all knowledge. This message was only given to his wife and those people who were close to him. But he later received more revelations and continued to proclaim the oneness of God to the world and his following grew steadily, initially among the poor, slaves and the oppressed, but later even the rich merchants were converted (Nawwab et al, 2007 Par 5)

This marked the beginning of Islam, a religion of strict observance of the law and the teachings of the prophet. To this day, Muslims around the world believe that Mohammad was the prophet of Allah and follow his teachings strictly for the religion teaches that any disobedience will be punished severely. But this religion, just like all the other religions of the world has not completely resisted change. It has to a significant extent conformed to the social and environment variations for it to survive.

A Changing Religion
Ziauddin Sardar in his article Change is Coming to Islam in the Times of India on 26 December 2009 gives the readers some changes that have been experienced by the religion in different parts of the world depending on the circumstances prevailing in the affected areas. Sardar believes that every law is made to bring justice to both the individual and the society. Any law that seeks success in its implementation must first obtain participation of its consumers during its making. To Sardar, Sharia law is not divine, and it must be subjected to serious thinking (Sardar 2009, Par 7).

In Morocco, Sharia law reflects the kind of law in America. These laws are fair and are constantly subjected to a healthy debate. In this country, a commission which included women was formed to reformulate the legislation based on Islamic principles. The resultant family law introduced in the statute books in 2004 abolished bigotry and bias against women. Today, a woman can contract marriage without the approval of the guardian. Other issues like verbal divorce have bee outlawed and women have the same rights as men (Sardar 2009, Par 7).

In Turkey, the Justice and Development Party (AKP) came to power in 2002. This political party used the standard principles of Islam to rearrange the Islamic politics towards democracy. According to its leaders, Islamic politics had to be based on the concept of Shura, which means consultation, which is a Quranic principle. This meant that they should be both democratic and consensual. Some of the reforms that were introduced included the abolition of death penalty, emancipation of the poor and the minority as well as other several other aspects of human rights which were put in place. The resounding win of the party in 2007 proved the effectiveness of the party in managing the economy (Sardar 2009, Par 4)

In Indonesia, the Muslim organizations which have had followers in millions have insisted that the politics of Islam is not concerned with creating a utopian State where Sharia law is supreme. Their aim is to come up with a civic society which endears transparency, accountability and participatory democracy. According to these organizations, both democracy and Sharia law must evolve to include the masses (Sardar 2009, Par 8)

Sharon Abbas in his article The Changing Face of Islam in Arab News gives an account of Sardar who wanted to show the differences in Islam between countries. He went to countries such as Pakistan, Indonesia, Malaysia, Turkey and Morocco, and for each country that he visited he had a different story to tell about how Islam is practiced. (Sharon 2005, Par 3)

Dr. Muqtedar Khan in Non Violence, Violence, Peace, Justice and Change in Islam believes that change is important in the Muslim world, both socio-cultural and political. To him, this is an uncontested feeling. But his concern is whether this change can be engineered peacefully. He posits that if there has to be any change in Islam, it must be peaceful (Khan 2008, Par 1)

Some sections of the Muslim faithful believe that any change towards what has come to be known as moderate Islam has been funded by the United States government. Abid Ullah Jan in Determined to change the very face of Islam claims that the United States has started a war within the Islam religion to bring change thereof. According to him, the United States government is now happy that the war is ranging and they are achieving their objectives. It is however debatable whether it is the U S that is bringing change in Islam or it is the circumstances surrounding the religion (Ullah 2005, par 7-9).

Politicians and other prominent men and women have been calling for a change in the way Islam operates. Sardar believes that if Sharia law can change, as it has, then everything else is prone to change in Muslim world. According to him, such legislations such as amputating the limbs of thieves and punishing women are bound to change with time. A Dutch politician who by the name Ali and who has a Muslim origin in her collection of essays by the title The Caged Virgin continuously calls for the emancipation of the Muslim woman. She believes that the elements that are treasured by Muslims such as having only one moral source and strict sexual morality are making the Muslim countries lag behind in development (Chadwick 2006 Par 5)

Conclusion
It is therefore important to note that no religion is immune to change. At some point in time, all religions will undergo significant changes in their beliefs and structure so that they can be at par with changes in the environment around them. This has been proven by Islam which has changed greatly in light of the circumstances that surround it.

Many believers can certainly remember their uneasiness upon first coming across the invective language portrayed in the Book of the Psalms. Their uneasiness may have come due to their disbelief at the occasional self-righteousness of the Psalmists, or due to a general sense of confused wonderment at the Old Testament and how it is understood by the present day Christians. In spite of the extensive reasonable clarifications available to them, some believers, however, are usually doubtful at how the clear shortcomings they recognize when reading the Old Testament can be merged with their deeply held conviction that the Bible is in fact the inspired Word of God. The internationally renowned writer, C.S. Lewis (1898-1963), experienced the same problems and he decided to pen down his thoughts in a thought provoking little book referred to as Reflections on the Psalms. The book is written with customary grace and insight and it addresses several questions that modern readers of the Psalms usually ask.

Even though some people may not agree with the position that Mr. Lewis is taking in the book, he respond to the problems that Christians are facing in an honest, brilliant, accessible, and, in several ways, comforting. For example, in the first sentence of the book, Lewis categorically says that, this is not a work of scholarshipI write for the unlearned about the things in which I am unlearned myself.  As much as these statements may be difficult to be accepted from a man of such caliber and from a book that is incisive, he continues with his eight-page chapter by providing vivid illustrations to back up his argument. The author applies this familiar approach throughout the book by moving from one aspect of the Psalms to another. Even though he does not move in any particular order, he integrates all the elements of the book by clarifying his thoughts on every topic discussed. Although his frequent use of Anglican terms may be difficult to comprehend for unbelievers, he expertly achieves what he set to do in this book.

An issue that occupies Lewis until the end of the book concerns not so much about the Psalms themselves, but the intentions to which they have been put in Christian prayer, liturgy, as well as theology. This is not in reference to the practice of reading texts from the Book of Psalms, or even just particular texts of the Psalms, when referring to Jesus. The author refers to this issue as the problem of second meanings. Such vivid explanations may at times strike the modern reader as capricious and sophistical and some may be attempted to totally dismiss the practice. However, the author says that dismissing the practice is rather premature since Jesus himself endorsed it in some instances when he applied certain verses in the Psalms to himself. Whereas most of Lewis readers may not see the necessity of this discussion, the majority of his most trusted fans, composing of the conservative American Evangelicals, would certainly see the reality of this.

In the book, Lewis points out a number of problems he has faced or the joys he has gained when reading the Psalms. He explains that the Psalms are poems, which are meant to be sung, not doctrinal treatises or sermons to be used in worship. He goes ahead with his characteristic grace and guides the readers through both the form and the meaning of these beloved verses found in the inspired Word of God. Therefore, to the seminary student, this book helps him or her to become accustomed to the critical review of the Scriptures by other people.

The book addresses a common difficulty for a modern Christian praying the Psalms concerning the prevalence of curses, angry outbursts, as well as the Psalmists occasional longing for his enemies to meet a sad death. The author points out that this is true in some passages in the Psalms such as in chapter 143 however, it is in reflections on how these passages were written that he finds fault in man. This implies that the injury caused to the psalmist is far worse for creating a new temptation or, worse still, a new sin in the life of another, and he argues that the reaction of the psalmist to injury is equally wrong though it is a natural reaction.

In this book, Lewis also reminds his audience, lay Bible readers, about a number of other issues that relate to the Christian faith. He talks about nature imagery in the Book of Psalms and its difference from the other ancient sources. He goes ahead to discuss how the difference indicates the theological distinctiveness of the Jewish people. The author analyses on what the Psalms teaches about death. Furthermore, the book addresses the concerns some people may have about the Psalms frequent injunctions to give praises to God.

Similar to Reflections on the Psalms, Praying the Psalms by Thomas Merton (1915-1968) gives the reader several ideas on worship and getting more from the Book of the Psalms. As opposed to Lewis who seemed to be addressing only the Anglicans, in this book Merton seems to be addressing only the Roman Catholics. Similar to Lewis, Merton centers the book on Jesus and the church, but he extract teachings about the Psalms from Saint Augustine and Saint Ambrose. Just as Lewis addressed the issue on how the Psalms have been misplaced in Christian prayer, liturgy, and theology, Merton points out that the laity should engage in appropriate ways of praying the psalms in order to avoid using them as doctrinal treatises or sermons.

In contrast to Reflections on the Psalms, this book delves into the life of people and groups in relation to the different categories of the Psalms. The book mainly focuses on preparing the devout to start cultivating the interior life by upholding Mary, the mother of Jesus, as a model worthy of emulation. Comparable to Lewis, Merton also gives a vivid explanation on why praising God is important for the Christian by asserting that, in doing so, the Christian can help sense and cultivate an appreciation for Gods love for him or her. In Praying the Psalms, Merton explains how individuals can draw out the richness of worship from the Psalter and uses it in living godly lives, for example, he says, the best way to praise God is to seek the way of praise in the Scriptures of God. All of these two books assist one to focus and comprehend the Book of Psalms by relating the teachings therein to the modern world issues.

In Lewis Reflections on the Psalms, a number of strengths are noticeable. To begin with, his writing style is gentle and easy. This strength enables a person with little more than a passing interest in the material to comprehend the theme of the book completely. Second, he does an admirable work in explaining every point that he had by giving plenty of relevant examples to support his arguments.

Third, he manifests a broad knowledge of history and this gets the reader closer such that he or she can hear the Psalms as they were meant to be heard. Fourth, the author acknowledges other alternatives about the origin of the Bible but always turns back to God as its author. However, he does this in a way that his reader does not easily realize what he has done. Finally, the strength of the book is evident by the way the author portrayed his uncompromising commitment in addressing the most complex problems facing modern readers of the Psalms. Lewis the professor did not permit himself to opt for easier alternatives or to paint over the problems with a pious language.

Discussing about the weaknesses of Reflections on the Psalms is a little easier since the book was written more than a half a century ago. Lewis starts by saying that the piece of writing is not a work of scholarship. This is not true because has he explains in his discussion about second meanings in chapter ten, maybe he did not want it to be scholarly work. However, the work could be undoubtedly be beneficial when used as a primer to a host of topics, both Christian and secular alike. Even in his time, his choice of language raises many questions for example, instead of using the term prig, thief would have been much easier to understand by his first readers and the readers who would get interested in his book later. Even though such words were common in his time, he could have benefitted the readers by using less technical terms throughout the book. Perhaps after lecturing at Oxford University for so long, he did not want to dumb down his literary skills.

Another weakness in this piece of writing is seen especially when the author is addressing two most difficult problems the cursing psalms (chapter III) and those whereby the psalmist expresses hatred to Gods enemies (chapter III). Certainly, the professor is right to avoid easy answers We must not either try to explain away or to yield for one moment to the idea that, because it comes in the Bible, all this vindictive hatred must somehow be good and pious. It is evident that in addressing these issues, Lewis painted the picture worse and, worse still, ignored some fundamental ameliorating factors.

Even though Lewis was not a strict inerrantist, his thoughts on the inspired Word of God are more common with traditional, conservative beliefs than with any current, liberal opinions that disregard the Bibles holiness, divine inspiration, or authority. If nothing else, he asserts that the divine inspiration written in the Scriptures is infallible. In the book, Lewis supports his personal opinions by advocating for a way of reading the Bible that acknowledges the human aspects of its authorship without diluting its inherently divine nature and purpose. This is evident as he steers his readers back to God throughout the book. The laymen, preachers, faithful Christians, the general public, seminary students, and those casually interested in Christianity would all do well by taking some time in reading this awesome book.

From the selection Israels Role among the Nation, it is being discussed who among the nations have the share in the world to come.  The main issues here are from Rabbi Eliezer and Rabbi Jeremiah.  All of us are sinners, and accepting this as a fact, Rabbi Eliezer believes that no one has the share to the world of God and every one of us shall go to Sheol which is a place for spiritual purification or a punishment for the wicked dead in Judaism (a set of beliefs and practices originating from the Hebrew bible), it can be a site wherein heaven is at the greatest possible distance.  Rabbi Jeremiah argues with this and pointed out that it was said as, The wicked shall go to Sheol and all the nations that forget God shows that there are righteous people who can share with the world to come and not all are wicked.

This selection was taken from the Hellenistic period, the era which followed the conquest of Alexander the Great and a world of constant wars for the claim of political power.  Greeks power and influence was at its zenith in Europe and Asia.  Hellenistic period is considered as time of transition.  This issue about who can have the share in the world to come can be an emblem of the Hellenistic period having the words of Rabbi Jeremiah as the period of transition.  When he said that there are righteous people that can be welcomed in the world to come, he brought people the idea that one can always repent from the sins he has done.

If before, people would automatically consider them as sinners, then they would never have the hope to be able to live again and believe that their destiny was to be at the Sheol.  But the argument Rabbi Jeremiah gave defied that idea and gave people the chance to be righteous.  Rabbi Eliezer acted as Alexander when he wanted to create a unified ruling class bounded by marriage ties.  This shows how Rabbi Eliezer stand up to his belief that everyone is a sinner and are bound to be at Sheol.  While Rabbie Eliezer acted as Alexander, Rabbi Jeremiah acted a Macedonian who resented Alexanders plan.  Alexander also uses specified empire for his plans Persian and Greek same as Rabbi Eliezer as he only uses the Israelites, Levites and priest.  It was said before that Hellenistic period is a war to claim political power.

In the selection, the priests, Israelites and Levites claim the power to be the only righteous one.  This shows that they are the only people who die with repent for it was said that the statement an individual have no share in the world to come are for those who dies without repenting.  If this is the case, then what would be the purpose of the gentiles that repent   Rabbi Jeremiah explains that selections from the bible uses man as a representation of the righteous and that it did not specify anyone who can be welcomed to the world to come.  Rabbi Jeremiah approaches the issue with an open-mind and brought change to the people of Judaism.

Modernity has a major impact on the development of Judaism. The Jews of Western Europe, who had been restricted to ghetto life, were now emancipated and given full rights as citizens. With emancipation came nationalism. There was a call for the restoration of the Jewish nation  a restoration of the Old Israel. As Herzl noted

The Jewish question still exists. It would be foolish to deny it. It is a remnant of the Middle Ages, which civilized nations do not even yet seem to able to shake off, try as they will. They certainly showed a generous desire to do so when they emancipated us  We naturally move to those places where we are not persecuted, and there our presence produces persecution (385).

The call for the restoration of Israel is a universal call among Jews. It defines their existence, character, identity, and purpose. In any case, what does restoration has to offer For centuries, Jews faced persecution in Europe, North America, and the Middle East. Restoration would allow Jews to assimilate by intermarriage. A Jewish state would restore the dignity and character of the Jewish race.

The Rabbinic Tradition and Israels Role among the Nations
Now, the rabbinic tradition expanded the meaning of Torah through rational reflection and legal argumentation. The existence of Israel has both a theological and philosophical basis. As Rabbi Eliezer and Rabbi Jeremiah argued

The rabbinic tradition tells us that Israel must, by necessity, exist. The All-Powerful God had decreed that Israel is the reflection of political, social, and religious imperative of the Divine Majesty. Indeed, Israel is not just a state, it is a divine invention. This divine invention has political and social structures which are derived from the rabbinic tradition (77).

After establishing the necessity of Israels existence, there is a need to define its role among nations. According to Rabbi Eliezer and Rabbi Jeremiah, Israel was considered as the model nations which all the nations of the earth should imitate. In order to achieve this end, it must have a strong religious and political foundation. Rabbinic tradition tells us that God fashioned Israel from his own sovereignty. As a nation, Israel was considered a supreme nation of laws and worship to the One True God. By implication, Israel must then be the formalist extension of Gods authority.

Call for Restoration
Restoration is not a reversion to an old order but merely a renewal of the past. The Jewish religion is attached to the state because religion is the sole foundation of the state. Like Catholic France, Israel derived its strength from religious unity. As Herzl noted

No human being is wealthy or powerful enough to transplant a nation from one habitation to another. An idea alone can achieve that and this idea of a State may have the requisite power to do so. The Jews have dreamt this kingly dream all through the long nights of their history. Next year in Jerusalem is our old phrase. It is now a question of showing that the dream can be converted into a living reality (386).

The Jewish state would have to be the hub of a restored identity. It would be unfair to assume that Jews were suited to a stateless life. Even assimilated Jews long for the return of Israel  the Old Israel. This is not a dream. This is reality. After the War, the Jewish state of Israel was established by Britain and the United States. For many Jews, this was a sign that God favored them. This was an indication that heaven has fulfilled its promise to the Jewish race  a renewed homeland.

Theologically, the state of Israel is an imagery of divine power. It is the sign of Gods filial love for His people. It is indeed the representation of a nation which obeys the commandments of God. The state of Israel is merely the instrument to carry Gods message to the world.

Epistemologically, the state of Israel may be regarded as the ideal construct  that is, the ideal nation to be imitated. God is one with Israel  a perfect God and a perfect nation. As Buber argued
This is so why in the Scripture the divine voice addresses man not as an isolated individual but always as an individual member of the people. Even before there is a people of Israel, its father-to-be, Abraham  God again and again addresses Himself to a thou of each individual in each generation of the people  the will of God  conceives Himself as the individual condensation of the people (389).

Sex education has widely become an important issue to be discussed not only in the homes but also in schools. The teaching of sex education in school can be considered as a positive step in ensuring that the young adults get necessary moral tools which will enable them survive in an environment heavily corrupted by media advertisements and obscene content. Good morals results to healthy sexual behaviors and avoidance of diseases (Oakley et al, 1995). Religion can as well play a major role in preaching abstinence which is one of the laws taught in the church. In the paper, various reasons why sexual education should be taught in schools will be discussed and the role of religion in the participation in providing sex education will be recognized.

Sex Education in Schools and the Role of Religion
Sex education refers to the knowledge about sexual reproduction, sexual intercourse, reproductive health, emotional relations, reproductive rights and responsibilities, abstinence, contraceptives and other issues relating to human sexual behavior (Oakley et al, 1995). In the United States, there have been several debates as to whether sex education should be taught in schools or not. A small percentage of the entire American population deny that sex education should never be taught in schools while most of the Americans agree to the fact that sex education is as essential as any other type of education in the schools.

Sex education is encouraged to be taught in schools rather than teenagers relying on their parents. This is because in schools teens will have a perception to sex education as any normal class work that they are supposed to be tested on. However, in the case of sex education being provided at home, teens will barely take it serious since they have the believe that it is not really mandatory. Sex education in schools is the best idea in consideration to sex education from the parents to the children.

Sex education is seen to have a vital impact in the teenagers, in diverse ways. This is the main idea behind the advocating of sex education in schools. Its at the tender age that teens start introducing themselves to the concept of sex it was therefore advised that it could be better if they are given the guidance of an elderly person. This resulted to sex education in schools.

It is evident that teenagers tend to be sensitive and curious about their sexuality and the same applies to their sexual being. This initiates them to go on their own adventures to try most of the things they see on television or watch on the internet. Such teens may find themselves engaging in sexual activities, trying to uncover the mysteries of their bodies. They often to this without understanding the consequences involved such as the unwanted pregnancies, sexually transmitted diseases, and sex addictions among many others.

Sex education is a crucial component in the health and moral growth among teenagers. It is crystal clear that youngsters derive information on sex and related subjects from friends, books, movies, internet, magazines and even television. The problem is that these sources may lack one or more information on how to go about the whole issues in sex. As such, sex education will help in transferring genuine information from experienced teachers and in the process also correct any misinformation that they may have (Oakley et al, 1995). This is the importance of sex education.
Another importance of sex education to school students and teenagers in general is that sex education imparted through schools can prove to be a significant and effective method of avoiding premarital sex related perceptions, attitudes and behavior. This is so unlike in the case where parents are educating their children about sex. The teenagers will come to understand the rationale of being told to abstain by their parents. They will then appreciate advice from their seniors.
 
Further still, sex education in schools is encouraged because parents and guardians may shy to teach and talk about sex with their children. Teenagers therefore cannot rely on their parents for sex education, they themselves cant stand to share freely with their parents and ask questions and answer what they are asked. This is because of the fear they have for their parents, and the respect they hold for them. Such a discussion that is not free will not be effectively put in place as expected.
Educating children and school students on sex related issues also requires one to know how to approach the subject, what information to pass on and what to hold back. Most a tine this is guided by the level of study of the audiences. For instance, a kindergarten student would be unfit for issues of emotional relations, of the effects of sexual misbehavior.  All this can be carefully handled by a trained sex educator, who understands well what is fit for who. This explains the necessity for sex education in schools.

It is evident that many teenagers are engaging in premarital sex. This calls for the need of sex education in schools, to educate and make the teenagers understand the repercussions of premarital sex. Sex education will help them make better and informed decisions about their personal activities. Many have argued that sex education also helps to reduce risky behaviors in teenagers for instance, engaging in premarital unprotected sex which results in unwanted pregnancies and STDs (Oakley et al, 1995).

Religion also has plays a vital role in the sex education for teenagers. The basic idea here is that the religious groups emphasize on abstinence than anything else. An abstinence based approach to sex education focuses on teaching the teenagers that abstaining from sex until marriage is the best mean of ensuring that they avoid infection with HIV, other sexually transmitted infections and unwanted pregnancies. As well as seeing abstinence from sex as the best option for maintaining sexual health, many supporters of abstinence based approaches to sex education also believe that it is morally wrong for people to engage in premarital sex (Oakley et al, 1995).

Although not all abstinence programmes are similar, they share the essential purpose of teaching the social, psychological, and health gains to be realized by abstaining from sexual activity. As such, abstinence education tends to include a mutual faithful, monogamous relationship in the context of marriage. Further still, abstinence from sexual activity outside marriage is the expected standard for all school age children. Students should be made to understand that abstinence from sexual activity is the only certain way to avoid out-of-wedlock pregnancy, sexually transmitted diseases, and other associated health tribulations.