Religion and Theology

An Analysis of Stephen Stein s  America s Bible Canon, Commentary, and Community
Stephen Stein s  America s Bible  discusses the expansion of what he refers to as the  bible category  in America (169). Stein argues that the expansion of the category is a result of a scriptualizing process, which involves (1) the specification of a canon, (2) commentary on this canon, and the (3) communal acceptance of this commentary (182). He divides his discussion into four parts, which traces the expansion and evolution of the bible category in American culture. In line with this, the following discussion extrapolates on Stephen Stein s observations and arguments as it is presented in the above mentioned text.
 
It is important to note at the onset the foundational assumptions of Stein s discussion. Although Stein does not explicitly provide a specific philosophical perspective that underlies his discussion, it is apparent that he adheres to a social constructivist framework. The framework conceives the concept  social  as  a phenomenon that involves   a plurality of human agents whose actions or plans are somehow mutually related  (Collins 5). Social constructivism assumes that reality is an amalgamation of social facts (Collins 14). Social facts here refer to concepts generated  by social consensus, by description, or by conceptualization  (Collins 14). Due to the collective s role in the process of generating social facts and hence social reality, one may infer that the creation process is embedded with power relations. Such is the case since the acceptance of a fact requires collective agreement regarding both its meaning and its object. Such being the case, reality thereby is a product of beliefs created and propagated by institutions of power. Within this context, social institutions are human inventions. Their existence requires collective human effort in terms of collectively believing that these institutions exist, have certain tasks to perform, are authorized and justified to perform them, and individuals within the social sphere or within these institutions are warranted in believing them. Human inventions thereby become the basis for the formation of certain beliefs. In addition, human inventions are also the basis for the expansion of the meanings associated to the fundamental concepts or objects in a particular social institution.

In the case of Stein s discussion, he emphasizes the different aspects involved in the expansion of the concept  bible  in the Christian religion. The review of literature in his article shows that the continuous expansions of the meanings associated with the concept  bible  may be traced to its association with other American cultural concepts whose evolution and redefinition relied on the  bible  to gain its own credence. He states,  In America the category  bible  enjoys a privileged cultural position   It appears that the term  bible  has lost all specificity of reference. You may choose to call anything a  bible  if you imply that it contains authoritative, necessary, and inclusive information or guidance  (Stein 169). In the American culture, the objects associated to the concept  bible  have thereby expanded beyond the term s original referent in the Catholic religion. This manifests not only the Catholic religion s great influence in American culture but also American culture s reinterpretation of the elements within the Catholic religion. In line with this, Stein claims that his discussion aims to perform the following task,

To explore the ways in which American have created their own bibles through the process of manipulating the canon of sacred scriptures or writing commentary on it. In doing so, they have also contributed directly to the fortunes of particular religious communities and indirectly to the expansion and transformation of the category  bible.  (169)

Re-translating his specified aim within the context of social constructivism, Stein s article thereby traces the evolution and expansion of a social fact, that being the authoritative character of the bible, in American culture. In addition, he also traces how the evolution and expansion of this social fact affected other religious institutions as can be seen in his emphasis on the role of the authoritative character of the Christian Bible to the Mormons, the Shakers, and the Seventh-Day Adventists to name a few of the religions he specified in his analysis.

Within the text, Stein implicitly specifies that in order to understand the expansion of the bible category it is necessary to consider the manner in which it has been assessed in scholarly literature. The assessment of the bible category, according to Stein, has undergone the initial emphasis on the object s history followed by its comparison with other objects in its category (170-183). This observation is based on his review of the literature regarding the Bible from 1985 until the year of the article s publication. He points out several observations from the development in the literature regarding the Bible. First, initial discussions of the Bible s content focused on its role in American culture (Stein 170). He states that the initial texts regarding the Bible assume that  The Bible  has been nearly omnipresent  in this nation s history  (Stein 170). Second, later discussions regarding the Bible focused on its role in a religious community (Stein 171). He notes that these texts focus on the  Critical role played by religious communities in the construction and reception of scriptures  (Stein 171). The discussion of the bible category in literature thereby showed a shift of focus from a singular object, that being the Christian Bible, to the category of the initial object, that being the scripture category. It is important to note that there is a distinction between the bible category and the scripture category. In the article, he adheres to Wilfred Smith s contextual definition of a scripture that claims

Being scripture is not a quality inherent in a given text, or type of text, so much as it is an interactive relation between that text and a community of persons. In other words, we need a religious community in order to have scripture. Smith maintains that scripture is a bilateral term, one that necessarily involves a relationship. Scripture is scripture only insofar as it is recognized and understood as such by a given community. Texts without such an interactive group are mere texts, ancient texts perhaps, or even modern texts, but not scripture. (Stein 171)

In Stein s discussion, the bible category exists as a social construct within American culture whereas the scripture exists as a social construct that is applicable to all religions within different cultures. In other words, one may state that the bible category is in itself an object within the scripture category. Such is the case since the expansion of the former required the actualization of the scriptualizing process, which entails the association of authority to a religious institution by means of its members  acceptance of its beliefs. He notes the role of the scriptualizing process in the growth of the Mormon religion and the decline of the Shakers (Stein 173-174).

Within this context, Stein s discussion emphasizes the role of individuals in creating and maintaining a specific religious belief. He observes that in order to create and strengthen a religious institution, it is necessary to include a  canon, commentary, and community  (Stein 182). In the case of the religious institutions that developed from the bible category, the canon is the Christian Bible, the commentary is given by those who participate in the new religion, and the community reinforces the social beliefs heralded by the commentators in the new religion.

Stein s discussion manifests the social character of religious institutions as well as religious beliefs. He shows that ultimately the similarity of all religious institutions lie in their dependence on their community. In this sense, the differences in the various Churches can be accounted for in terms of each religious institution s construction of its institutional beliefs and truths.  Using Searle s logical structure of institutional reality, that is,  We accept, acknowledge, recognize, go along with, etc., that (S has power (S does A))  or its abbreviated form  We accept (S has power (S does A)) (111).The power of S is dependent on the function of S within the institution. In this sense, the interpretation of a biblical text within each religious institution ought to be understood to be dependent on its function within the institution. If such is the case, it follows that any interpretation of the Biblical text stands in relation to the institution in which the text is understood or interpreted. The reason for this lies in the dependence of meanings within the spheres of power in which such meanings are generated.

At first glance, such an account for the formation of religious beliefs and religious truths becomes problematic for religious institutions since it contradicts the universal aspect of such beliefs. However, as Hermans notes, the social construction of meanings should not be seen as enabling the dogmatic characterization of religious beliefs (114). According to Hermans,  Social constructionism is useful because it stresses the transforming power of dialogue  (I)t opens a dialogue between differing religious voices within society  (114). Stein s discussion thereby not only allows one to have a deeper understanding of the biblical category in American culture since it also allows us to have a deeper understanding of the communal aspect that unites all religious institutions. Religion thereby is not merely a dialogue with the divine since it is also a dialogue between men.

Four views on hell, basically tries to reveal the notions on hell, whether hell is everlasting or if it is just momentary (as how most want it to be).  The life after this life as described in the Bible, as grave, pit, hell or to heaven, according to ones deeds, has always seemed unclear and quiet disturbing to human minds. Sheol is the principal term used to refer the life after life. The uncertainty as to how Sheol should be interpreted in the Old Testament led to the extensive debate carried on by William G. T. Shedd with Charles Hodge. Shedds dogmatic theology debated a great length the meaning of Sheol in his discussion on the intermediate state. One of the reason to have developed these views are the thoughts of humans that keep lingering as to how, God with His righteous grace and ending love show great anger and cause damnation of the wicked to eternal punishment.  The author tries to unfold the notions that people live in and want to believe in, and, of the revelation of the Bible which speaks of hell being an eternal entity.  The book provides enlightenment giving scriptural references along with the perspectives of the worldly ignorance.
     
FOUR VIEWS ON HELL

The first is the orthodox view, which follows the scriptural approach and defines hell as something where the sinners and the nonbelievers are thrown in and the suffering is everlasting.  It strictly agrees to hell being a forever punishment for the sin-bound, defining peoples attitude towards reaching the place.  The Bible clearly says that Jesus is the way, truth and the life, without Him there is death.  And regarding those who know the truth and refuse to believe and act ignorant, have a predilection in going hell.  The Bible even reveals how hell would be like and how miserable and painful the condition of an individual would be when he goes there it describes hell to be some place where the pain is so dreadful that no one has ever experienced before.  As opposed to how heaven is, as none has ever experienced such beauty before.  The literal view follows the punishment of the wicked being everlasting and there is no redemption.
   
The second being the metaphorical view, which is less specific and non literal but has many people following it.  This view however agrees to no redemption to the wicked and that they wouldnt be allowed to the place of eternity, it is vague and uncertain.
   
The third is the purgatorial view, the ones of the Roman Catholic views, where it talks about an intermediary place called the purgatory, where the wicked are cleansed and washed from their sins and are redeemed to go to heaven.  It however suggests that everyone have to face the purgation and will be judged for their un-confessed sins and are inflicted.  And says that purgation precedes the place of grace
   
The fourth and last view is the conditional or the temporary, which suggests hell being temporary and the suffering only for a period, the wicked are redeemed and eventually everyone is saved. It lessens the severity of the everlasting punishment.

CRITICAL INTERACTION WITH THE AUTHORS WORK

The author in the book shows different ideas of Hell taking the world, the intellectuals and parables from the Bible, an individuals approach and the Scripture as a whole, into consideration.  The book to some extent might be vague in its conclusion but to conclude wasnt the authors objective.If you have ever wondered about the doctrine of hell, and what the Bible really teaches about it, thenFour Views on Hell edited by William Crockett might be just what you need to read.The author had put down the possible ways in describing duration of suffering in hell.  Many people including some of the Christians wouldnt agree on the concept of hell being forever even though it is in the Bible. They would prefer following either the purgatorial or conditional view for the fact that no living creature would want to know the extent of suffering be forever.
   
If the doctrine of eternal punishment was clearly and unmistakably taught in every leaf of the Bible, and on every leaf of all the Bibles in the world, I could not believe a word of it. I should appeal from these misconceptions of even the seers and the great men to the finite and eternal Good, who only God is and who only on such terms could be worshipped.

So there is a tendency on agreeing to non-literal views and raising a hope that the given life is not the final test for eternity.  Four views on hell, was mainly made to create an awareness of the perception of hell, and the author seems to have made the point.  The book doesnt show his pick but gives out the various possibilities of how life after this life can be. The book also talks about many theologians who believe in eternal punishment and who do not.  Variations in understanding the duration and extent of everlasting punishment have occupied Christian theologians for century, including the Jewish and Christian theologians before the time of Christ. Some like R. H.  Savage are even willing to deny the scriptures.

As the Old Testament describes as the life after life as sheol, uncertainty of which lead to an extensive debate between William G.T. Shell and Charles Hodge. Charles Hodge, a contemporary of William G.T. Shedd, did not find the two-compartments theory of Sheol in the Old Testament incompatible with the Scriptures. He wrote Sheol is represented as general receptacle or abode of departed spirits, who were there in the sate of unconsciousness some in the state of misery and others in the state of happiness. In all these ideas the pagan idea of hades corresponds to the scriptural idea of sheol.

But the fact is, truth doesnt change, it remains the same irrespective of human beliefs. God is fair and just, if His love to His believers is so abundant and pure so would also His anger be extreme and unbearable.  The Bible says no one can bear Gods anger, it is that crucial.  Yet God with His abundant grace is willing to forgive His people for their sins when asked for forgiveness during the course of life that He has given.  It is as clear as crystal that the fire and the suffering in hell is for ever. In Matthew 2541, Mark 941 the fire is described as eternal. Jesus spoke describing His followers and the non believers,  they will go away to eternal punishment, but the righteous to eternal life.  It is to our understanding that the Bible lets us know only the things that are important and the ones not revealed or not much concentrated on are the ones to be comprehended as those that one can be lived without knowing.  So its up to ones own discernment.  The Bible clearly says that it is the matter of choice, if one chooses to follow Jesus and has decided to give hisher life to Him, then one chose the eternal life.  And its a free will, there is no force involved, it is your life and how you choose to live, but one is let known of the consequences priorly.  Human mind has developed itself in a way that what ever suits best is considered to be real for an individual and we keep to living with that.  Belief is something that comes by faith and is not conditional, it involves believing wholly.  But the world is always after picking up the suitable ones, those that fit in, and leaving the unfit. If it is not apt, then discard, thats how it goes.  When you believe there is a God above, existing, and that He has revealed things, things we are supposed to know, then why back off with few.  Many say that we believe in God and that Hes word is revealed through the Bible but they say that it is only a part of the Bible that we believe in.  The scripture as whole is not what we want to be believe, we only want we believe what we want to.  So here goes, the views on hell.
 
An apologist, given a chance, would rather want to make a good use of the book by spreading the truth, but since the author has written it in terms of the peoples perception, the book has come out to his expectations.  It is informative suggesting a varied opinion of people.  But one cant find what hell is all about by reading it since there is no description of hell. Four views on hell is not one of the offending type to non believers an atheist as such wouldnt mind reading it, as it doesnt concentrate in letting people know of their ignorance it rather just focuses on disclosing the speculations and views of many people yet in a non confusing way. The meaning of the book can be taken in various aspects but ultimately its the individual belief which comes to play.  One can either understand the truth, accept and it and willingly try to follow it or can one just hear it from one ear and let it out from the other. But the book does make one think about how unclear things can get because of the skepticism. That again depends on how people take the book to be.  The reader would always find it appealing in knowing the views one hell, the book having a good reference does make it worth reading.

CONCLUSION
The book as such is informative suggesting the varied opinion people have, it doesnt conclude with a final answer nor does the author share his point of view. The author tries to shows the ignorance of people in various aspects of the book. One can understand that Bible is the only way to go, which provides sufficiently enough knowledge in understanding the eternal suffering yet somehow many refuse to believe in it. Though many of the intellectuals still find it difficult to gain conviction completely towards the Bible but that doesnt mean the truth would change.  During the time when Jesus came to earth, it was the Pharisees and the scholars, those having known the Bible, were the ones to doubt in Jesus being the Christ.  So it explains that it is not through worldly knowledge one will get to understand the truth, in fact the wise doubt in everything there is and trust almost nothing without the proof.  The fisherman and the amateurs were Jesus disciples they trusted Him with all their hearts without any doubts.  It goes the same way, we are always after wanting to find out little more or trying to disclose something else but fail to put in that trust.  Instead of running around one can always stop to think that heshe can try doing things that could lead them towards the eternal life like having faith in The Word and trusting God with His works.  With all these same saying having heard them all before, one can just give it a try and find out the truth and the truth will set free, and then knowing or not knowing things wont matter any more because one would eventually find the purpose to life.

Hinduism is the oldest living religion in the world, which is why its followers who are generally referred to as Hindus, call it the eternal religion or sanatama dharma (Woodhead, 2002, p.15). Hinduism is the primary indigenous religion of South Asia and is composed of practices, beliefs and socio-religious institutions of Hindus from India, Sri Lanka, Nepal and Bali in Indonesia (Dogra et al., 2003, p.5) Hinduism is different from monotheistic, panentheistic, theistic and monistic systems because it is not a single belief system, but a combination of all, which means Hindus worship gods in different forms. Hinduism has numerous sacred traditions and beliefs, which are closely tied to the history and social structure of the Hindu society.

Among the many societal and cultural influences that make Hinduism vital to Hindu society is the caste system, which is founded on the Hindu belief in reincarnation. A persons caste determines his marriage partner, occupation, and many other opportunities and responsibilities in his life. Castes compose a hierarchy based on the four varnas mentioned in the Veda, the sacred text of Hinduism (Woodhead, 2002, p. 20). The four castes are the Brahmins who are scholars and priests, the Kshatriyas who are rulers and warriors, the Vaishyas who are merchants, and the Shudras who are servant surfs. There are also law books today that recognize a fifth caste called the vana or untouchables. Since each group is considered a separate entity, intermarriage is strictly prohibited between castes (Hall, 2004, p. 79).

There have been many reformers that attempted to abolish the caste system, but many Hindus have time and again vehemently refused such action because they believe that a persons life on earth is a direct consequence of his deeds in his past life. Hindus believe that a person rightfully deserves to be in his present caste because his past deeds or karma resulted in his present life. In fact, there is even a local caste council that regulates the caste system, so that no one crosses over to anothers caste since this is interpreted to be an act of interference with gods will. The council makes sure that the person who does is harshly penalized for breaking the rules.

Hinduism has been shaped by various historical forces, among which is the geography of the land of its origin itself. Natural features such as rivers, woodlands and oceans may be considered holy by Hindus, as well as man-made structures like family shrines, temples, and other places of pilgrimage. One of the most special natural places for Hindus is the Himalayas, which they believe to be the home of the gods of the Hindu pantheon (Bowen, 1998, p. 231). Mountains are traditionally special to Hindus. In fact, man-made temples, such as the Kailasa Temple in Ellora, are designed based on the gradual ascending pattern of a mountain range.

One of the most central sacred beliefs of Hindus is reincarnation. According to Hindu tradition, reincarnation repeatedly happens until a persons soul has resolved all experiences and learned all the lessons in life the material world has to offer. While the soul is immortal, it does evolve from an immature form into a spiritually illuminated form. When a soul finally liberates itself from earthly existence, it attains moksha. Once the soul is finally liberated, it continues to exist but it doesnt enter a physical body anymore. As evidence of reincarnation, many Hindus usually refer to people who claim they remember their past lives.

Hindus believe that after a persons death, his soul leaves his physical body. The soul then occupies a subtle body referred to as the astral body while in a non-physical dimension called the astral plane. The soul continues to have experiences while in this state until it is reborn in a physical body as an infant. Based on a familys potential to fulfill its requirements for moksha, the soul chooses which family it will be reborn into. The cycle of reincarnation only stops when the soul has reaches enlightenment by freeing itself from its earthly existence.

Power, magic and godly interventions are all aspects of Hindu beliefs and traditions. The Atharvaveda, the last book of the Vedas, contains a collection of hymns from the Rig Veda, as well as magic spells for everyday life. These magic spells are supposed to help Hindu people get by their lives through the help of various gods they believe in. For instance, one magic spell to make a horse run swifter from the Atharvaveda reads, Swift as the wind be thou, O steed, when joined (to the chariot) at Indras urging go, fleet as the mind (Bloomfield, 2004, p. 101)
 
Hindus practice a plethora of ritual practices that vary widely based on factors such as region, deity, gender, caste and social status. They generally follow the lunar calendar which is filled with different rituals for different occasions. For example, Puja, a ritual performed on various occasions to glorify the gods, may consist of meditation, prostrations, chanting, food offerings austerity and reading of the holy text of Veda (Rinehart, 2004, p. 123)

There are different ways to perform rituals, and these can be performed individually or as a group. For example, a Hindu family may start their day with puja at home to venerate their deities. The puja may be as simple as offering incense and flower to deities, or they may have up sixteen different offerings similar to a temple puja. Because of this, a Hindu home is usually designed to accommodate a puja, usually equipped with spacious floors where members of the family could sit together and worship their gods.

Natural objects found in the environment also play an important role in the practice of Hinduism. Thus, aside from worshipping deities in human form, some Hindus also worship stones and trees for they believe that deities may reside in such things (Hall, 2004, p.179). Deities may also dwell in man-made structures, like the deity Kali who is supposed to live in Hindu cemeteries. The importance of the environment to Hindu ritualistic traditions can also be seen in the practice of bathing in sacred rivers such as Yamuna and Ganges. According to Hindus, water is a substance that absorbs and washes away impurities. Therefore, water from these sacred bodies clears away the transgressions of people. Unfortunately, religious practices like this may pollute rivers since hundreds of people may bathe at the same time.

The intimate connection of Hindus to their environment is also rooted in their belief of Brahman, the main god of Hinduism. All people, creatures, trees, stones, stars, and everything that exists come from Brahman, which is why Hindus rarely refer to Brahman as god but rather, It. Everything in the world and in the universe is part of Brahman and therefore sacred. Such beliefs in the equality of god and nature have led some analysts to categorize Hinduism as pantheism.

Like Muslims who have a religious duty to visit the sacred city of Mecca, Hindus also have a religious duty to visit places of pilgrimage. Followers of Hinduism are known to go on long, painful journeys to places they consider holy. It is believed that going to pilgrimage sites cleanses away a persons past sins, and makes his future life after death better. In fact, many believe that the harder the journey is the more spiritual merit a person gets.

In India where Hinduism is the main religion of the population, wayside shrines dot the cities. These wayside shrines usually come in the form of a lump of clay daubed with red paste. Travelling Hindus come to these shrines to meditate or venerate their gods.

Hinduism has truly developed into a rich and colorful religion because of its long history and various influences from the peoples of many cultures. Today, Hinduism is still thriving in many countries around the world because of the deep meaning people get from believing and practicing it. While many of its sacred religious beliefs and practices should be continued, a few, like the caste system should be checked and abolished completely as it still goes on in many small towns and rural areas. The government may also evaluate the safety of sacred religious practices like bathing in holy rivers. All in all, Hinduism is a meaningful religion, which has to be improved to better benefit its growing number of followers.

It was the worst of times, it was the darkest of times, it was the time when the birth of a daughter forced a father to bury her alive, it was the time when the entire Arabian Peninsula was encircled by polytheistic beliefs. It was the time when the Holy Kabba was a bastion of more than three hundred idols. It was in the midst of such dark times when the benevolent for the entire mankind stepped into this world. He not only revolutionized the society but also chastised its people as if they have been reincarnated. He told them to follow the order of God as it is the only way which can immune them from the raging fire of Hell. He instructed them to remain steadfast to the word of Quran as implementing upon the message of this Holy book will provide them the solution of their every problem they encounter in everyday life. It was Muhammad the last messenger of Allah.

Out of all 1, 24,000 apostles send by Allah, Muhammad occupies a very special place primarily because other apostles that were send by Allah were for a specific nation or tribe but the beauty of Muhammad and his message is that his teachings and his preaching are not confined or limited to any nation or tribe but are a universal message which will serve as a beacon of guidance not only for Muslims but for followers of all religions throughout his life.

From a very young age Muhammad was known as Sadiq and Ameen meaning the most truthful and honest, a very prominent example justifying this example was when the dispute of the holy stone of Hajr-e-Aswad broke out in the Arab. Due to the religious importance associated with the stone each tribe wanted to gain the prestige of placing the stone. Following a number of negotiations which ended in deadlock a decision was made that the first person entering the Kabba the following day will be provided the authority of decision making. Fortunately, to every ones delight the first person to enter the Kabba was Muhammad. He placed the stone on a piece of mantle and asked all tribe leaders to hold each end of the mantle to place the stone at its appropriate place. It was due to the ingenious strategy and decision making ability of the prophet that helped in resolving a dispute which was on the brink of bloodshed. It is worth mentioning here that some other incidents and episodes like these which proved his wisdom and intelligence made him an ideal personality in Arabia even before he was declared the prophet of Allah.

Approaching towards the age of forty he became fond of solitude and isolation. Cave Hira became his only place where he would spend his days and nights with a short supply of dates and water. As written by Armstrong, It was in that very cave he was provided the message by Angel Gabriel about his prophet hood. Gabriel appeared in front of him and asked him to read, he replied that he cannot read. The question was repeated thrice and the same reply came. It was after this that Gabriel told Muhammad to read with the name of thy Lord who created Man from a clot of blood, and read in the name of your Lord who is the most Supreme. After some time a second revelation was made to prophet to publicly preach people about Islam and about the oneness of Allah (Armstrong, 2007).

Moving towards the second part of the discussion which is the political agenda of Muhammad, it is first important to understand the conditions of the Arabian society. According to Armstrong, during the last years of the sixth century, Mecca had transformed into the most important settlement in the Arabian peninsula. Such economic development altered lifestyle which was superseded by rampant and ruthless capitalism (Armstrong, 2007). Muhammad realized that Quraysh were on a dangerous path and required an ideology which could save them from their ruthless disintegration. It was the time when he realized that any political oriented solution of religious nature was mandatory. Not after a long period from there onwards Muhammad was declared as the prophet of God and when he tried to integrate this ideology he was confronted with the worst kind of oppression and torment.  
 
Muhammad and his handful of faithful followers provided the most supreme examples of tolerance and patience comparison of which is hardly available in any other religion. When the opposition from the pagans acquired its zenith, the followers of Muhammad decided to migrate to Yathrib (now known as Madina). As in the words of Armstrong this was an absolutely unprecedented step for an Arab. The choice of Yathrib once again involved political convenience for the followers of the embryonic religion as the various tribal groups in the state of internal warfare and were willing to embrace Islam as a political and spiritual solution of the oasis. The event of Hijrat or migration is considered such a landmark in the history of Islam that the Muslim date their era not from the birth of Muhammad but from his year of the Hijra as in the words of Armstrong.

To a certain extent the argument raised by Armstrong about the role of Muhammad merely as a prophet and not as a political leader can be subjected to debate. From the examples stated above it is clear enough that despite of his reluctance he was acknowledged as the spiritual and political leader by the entire peninsula primarily because of his supreme attitude, ingenious strategy making and submitting to the will of Allah under all circumstances. In addition to this his efforts in uniting the tribes of Yathrib which were earlier at loggerheads and his concern for the Arabian society which was on the brink of disintegration were also some of the factors that helped in the comprehensible manifestation of his politically designed agenda.  (Armstrong, 2007)

In years to come we see that during the strategy making of any battle, Muhammads advice was provided foremost priority and it was mainly due to his spiritual cum political leadership which helped in providing a new dimension to the fabric of Islam such as in the Battle of Badr and Ahzab which are considered a landmark victory for the newly emerging religion.  (Armstrong, 2007)

As far as the question about the triumph of the political agenda of Muhammad is concerned we see that during his lifetime he was very successfully able to establish a political system which was based on the doctrines of Islam and Islamic Law and even showed its efficacy during the times of preceding caliphs like Abu Bakr and Umar, who helped in the accurate projection of Islamic principles such as social and political justice, but in contemporary times we see that no Muslim country or state follows these doctrines in its authentic way as it was exercised during the time of Muhammad or the Caliphs. Even though much light has not been shed by Armstrong on this aspect, I believe that the concomitant development of the democracy and its subsequent acceptance by states as the form of governance and ideology laid down the foundation which eroded the true essence of Islamic values and contributed to the decline of the Islamic empire.  

As discussed earlier that Muhammad was not send for any specific nation or tribe but for the entire humanity as that is why the message of Muhammad is for the entire mankind seeking to guide anyone who wants to enlighten himself with the essence of the Hadith and the Sunnah of the Holy Prophet. By going through Islamic history we can also easily witness that when Muhammad marched into the city of Mecca as a victor he established a state which was based completely on the Shariah laws defined by the Quran and all of this helped the Muslims not only during his lifetime but also after his demise when Islam emerged as the most powerful religion of the world.

All such factors collectively converge on the point that even though Muhammad was the last messenger of Allah, it was mainly due to this reason that his contribution in conducting politics according to the principles of Islam comprise an integral part of his eternal message and that manifests the cohesion of his teachings which have always been a source of ultimate guidance for Muslims dwelling around the world.

The relationship between Spinoza and Maimonides on the nature of prophecy

In his book entitled Maimonides A Guide for Todays Perplexed Kenneth Seeskin noted the thinking of Maimonides regarding prophecy. According to Seeskin  Maimonides thinks peoples views on prophecy mirror their views on creation. This view seemed right because prophecy is directly related to creation. That is, in the Old Testament, God was dealing with his creation through the prophets, in other words, the nature of prophecy is that it is a link between Gods plan for his creation and the understanding towards the divine plan. Maimonides assertion as to who can be prophets reflects a theological understanding that is based on the Old Testament, notably Gods appointment of Amos to be a prophet. According to Jewish history, he was actually a shepherd from the village of Tekoa. This view holds much relation with Spinozas view on prophecy and revelation. In his book A Theologico-Political Treatise Spinoza stated, A prophet is one who interprets the revelations of God to those who are unable to attain to sure knowledge of the matters revealed, and therefore can only apprehend by simple faith. This statement relates to Maimonides view on the nature of prophecy in the context of Amos as an ordinary man with ordinary understanding.

Spinoza does not seem to believe that a prophet is a man appointed by God to the works of prophecy. This is understandable because he apparently does not believe that prophecy is a special revelation from God. Rather what he was saying was that through prophecy, God connects his will to the people that has to simply be interpreted by the prophet using an ordinary language in order for ordinary people to understand it. For Spinoza, prophecy includes ordinary knowledgethat is common to all men as men, and rests on the foundations which all share. In reconciling the relationship between these two thinkers regarding their views on the nature of prophecy, one could draw an impression that they had different views though it was quite obvious that both were God believers. Spinoza seemed to treat the nature of prophecy simply as an interpretation of the revelation of God in the language of ordinary people. That is, the role of the prophet was not as a spokesman of God but as an interpreter of the divine revelation. This view reduced the function of the prophet from active instrument of God to foretell his will to a passive interpreter of the divine revelation.

Is Spinozas critique of prophecy undermines the account that Maimonides gives of the prophets how does it do this

Spinoza with all due respect, may really have the nerve to critic the Hebrew prophecy of the scripture. According to Adele Berlin et al. Spinoza received traditional Jewish education and was familiar with the Biblical commentaries which allowed him either to praise or reject the work of others. In this case, Berlin et.al, noted Spinoza rejection of Maimonides philosophical hermeneutics on the ground of his argument that the Bible could not be proven to be divinely revealed text, and even if the Bible was revealed by God, its meaning is accessible only through human interpretation. With this argument, Spinoza clearly laid down the foundation of his view particularly on the nature of prophecy. That is, for him, prophecy is merely a human prediction. For Spinoza, the Bible is merely a human document that must be studied like any other ancient text, a product of imagination of its human authors.

In the following citations however, Spinoza admit that prophecy is directly from God. Spinoza stated What ever may be said about it (Prophecy) must be sought from scripture, since we have no true knowledge of prophecy, nor can we explain it through its first causes. Prophetical revelation the Bible attributes either to a real voice  such as that which God spoke to Moses  or to one which was imaginary He contends that it is evident that God use some kind of real voice, since Moses found God ready to speak with him whenever he wished.  This statement demonstrates that since knowledge of prophecy is not available, one should sought knowledge from scripture. It means that what is needed is a simple understanding or knowledge about the written word of God. In effect, prophecy is not important so long as one can draw knowledge from scripture about the will of God and about spiritual things.

From this, it appears that Spinoza also believe that God is speaking to his creation to convey his will. While he clearly believes in prophecy, he argues that it requires higher knowledge. However, he implied that that prophecy is different from the actual voice of God which He has uttered to Moses. According to Spinoza we are not bound to believe the setting of the prophesies, but only their end and substance. He cited as example Micaiahs prophecy to Ahab in I Kings 22. According to this passage Micaiah declares he saw the Lord sitting on his throne with all the host of heaven round Him, and that a commission was given to deceive Ahab. While he believe that such kind of revelation was possible, he argued that all that the passage intended to reach was that God revealed to Micaiah the true issue of the battle between Ahab and Aram, and to this only are bound to give credit.  Thus, he believed that God may indeed reveal his plan and purpose through prophecy but the human ability or capability to comprehend such revelation is limited. Prophet can only interpret the circumstances and the revelation using his own simple language in order for the common man to understand such nature of revelation.

Seeskin pointed out that Maimonides view on the nature of prophecy was discussed in three positions, two representing extremes, and the other represents a compromise. Seeskin explained that the extreme positions correspond to supernatural account of prophetic illumination which treats prophecy as a miracle, while the other one is a compromise. In Seeskins discussion of Maimonides supernatural aspect of prophecy, Maimonides held that a prophet is a divinely appointed man regardless of sex, age, or the level of intelligence. Maimonides contends that any one cannot just be a prophet, as the identity of those destined to be prophets is known only to God. The implication of this view is that the task of a prophet is no ordinary and therefore the nature of prophecy is also not ordinary. This task reserved only to whom God has appointed for that purpose.

In his preparatory remarks in The Guide for the Perplex Moses Maimonides depicts the image of the prophets as being sacred and religious. Apparently, he has much respect on the prophetic work and regarded it as a sacred task performs by divinely appointed person. Maimonides seemed to also imply that the nature of prophecy designate a status of prophetic excellence. Citing two passages in two Old Testament Books of Exodus and Deuteronomy Maimonides stated, On some lightning flashes in rapid succession, and they seem to be in continuous light, and their night is as clear as the day. This was the degree of prophetic excellence attained by the greatest of prophets, to whom God said, But as for thee, stand thou here by me (Deut. v. 31), and whom it is written the skin of his face shone (Exodus 34 29. Maimonides affirms that understanding of prophecy gives light that illumines the darkness of men. He emphasized that this light varies as according to Maimonides, there are some to whom the flashes of lightning appear in varying intervals others are in the condition of men, whose darkness of is illumined not by lightning, but by some kind of crystal or similar stone, or other substances that posses the property of shining during the night and to them even the small amount of light is not continuous, but now it shines, and now it vanishes, as if it were the flame of the rotating sword      
Given Maimonides emphasis on the sacredness of scripture and the nature of prophecy, it clearly implies his deep respect and faith in God as well as his view on the nature of prophecy which considers as sacred and religious or spiritual.

Going back to the question earlier whether Spinozas critique of prophecy undermines the account that Maimonides gives of the prophets, the answer is yes, it does Spinozas view that prophets are mere individual who wished to be so prophets directly undermines Maimonides claim that prophets are appointed by God, and that God has specific standard that he alone knows, regarding the characteristic of those who would be prophets. Spinozas assertion that the scripture cannot be proven to be divinely revealed text undermines Maimonides teaching of the sacredness of the scripture as well as the religiosity and spirituality of prophecy. In this case, Spinoza was promoting humanism in the interpretation of the scripture which undermines the spirituality and sacredness of the scripture and the prophecy. In his evaluation of Spinozas critique of prophecy, Howard Kreisel stated,
When seen as a historical phenomenon depicted in the Bible, it is the experience of a divine communication consisting of images andor words attained by certain individuals possessing a superior imagination. These individuals sought what was just and good, but had a limited understanding of reality, including the very nature of their experience. Their visions were product of their imagination, shaped by their thoughts and the objects with which they were familiar. The content of the visions reflected both by the goodness of their desire and the defects of their knowledge. The common accepted their messages as being given by God, and the signs they produced as proof of this. The historical works depicting this phenomenon are regarded as the word, and as possessing absolute authority. In they are product of the faulty human understanding.
The statement above not only undermines the prophecy which Maimonides regarded as both sacred and divine, but it also undermines the sacredness of the scripture as the written word of God as for Spinoza, prophecy is a mere imagination. According to Howard, many of Spinozas view can be traced to medieval Jewish philosophical literature. Kreisel asserts that Spinoza rejects their claim that prophecy involves the imagination, which explains the nature of the visions and the forms they assume.  He also rejects their claim that prophecy requires a perfected intellect.  Clearly then, Spinoza undermines the account that Maimonides gives of the nature of prophecy.        

What is the relationship between the account Maimonides gives of prophecy and the account given by Spinoza.

Maimonides was way earlier of Spinoza. He was a Jewish scholar who has an extensive knowledge of the Old Testament much more on the nature of prophecy. By all implication, there was no relation between Spinoza and Maimonides except that his works undermines Maimonides especially on the nature of prophecy. Spinozas position on the issue of prophecy and the sacredness of scripture as the written word of God was understandable. There are a number of factor affecting his views on these issues. Among these factors was his background. Though born of Jewish parents, according to his biography, he has renounced his allegiance to Jewish ancestry at young age. This suggests that he does not adhere to the Jewish traditions and heritage which include the scriptures.

Perhaps, the relations between Spinoza and Maimonides were in the respective context of their writings. Spinozas work seemed to be merely grounded on Maimonides work on the basis of his critical examination of Maimonides. He seemed to have directed his ideas to challenge the existing Hebrew notion of prophecy. What ever his intension was, he provided an opposite way of looking at the biblical accounts. For Maimonides, reason is mutually compatible with revelation. But this is opposite with what Spinoza believed. Regarding Spinozas view on reason, Leo Strauss wrote, For the sake of that liberation the prejudice that reason must subject it self to the supra-rational or contra-rational revelation contained in scripture is eliminated. Spinozas theology, according to Strauss, does not subject reason to scripture, rather to reason. This grossly undermines Maimonides teachings, as the statement suggest that the scripture which is the source of life are subject to human scrutiny and reason. The account given by Maimonides speaks of his respect and conviction of scripture as the revelation of God and of prophecy as way of God to proclaim his warning and judgment as well as his blessings.  Referring to this, Strauss puts it, Maimonides does not merely assert that revelation and reason are mutually compatible, but above all, that revelation is necessary for salvation, or that reason is insufficient for such conduct of life as leads to beatitude

Conclusion
Given the views on the nature of prophecy and the scripture, it appears that Maimonides has a more convincing argument as his views were grounded on his understanding of the scripture. Spinozas view was concern on the practical aspect which emphasized on understanding of the scripture by using ordinary language in order to understand it. In general however, Spinoza discredited the authority of the scripture as well as the prophecy. However, regardless of how both Spinoza and Maimonides viewed the Bible, what is important is the fact that God is the creator and the author of creation and salvation. No matter how one interprets or treat the prophecy and the Bible, everyone one ought to pay respect and appreciation for Gods wonderful revelation to the world of him both through prophecy and revelation.

Thesis statement
It is the dream of every person to own a house. Mortgages have been the major channels of enabling individuals to own a house in the modern day world. However, mortgages are forbidden in the Islamic faith since they are based on payment of interest, which are termed as unjust. The issue of mortgage however has been a topic of debate between Sunni and Shia.

Introduction
A mortgage according to Hilliard (1838) is a conditional transference of land which is designed as a security for the payment of money and to be void upon such payment. A mortgage secures once promise that the funds borrowed shall be repaid. According to Hassan (2006, 35) to most of us, the mortgage is one of the most serious financial obligations we ever get to make. Various views have been expressed by different religious scholars including those regarding buying of property or business on mortgage Some look at the positive side of it where one can go ahead and buy business or property from financial institutions and banks, while others believe its better to live in a rented house till one can afford to buy business or property on hard cash. While considering questions like these, there are certain principals of Islam that one should also put in mind especially considering the conditions prevailing in our world in general or particularly in a certain area. To begin with, it is essential to remember the purpose of Islamic legislation which is to serve the communitys interests, mankind community in general and the community of Muslims in particular. One of the rules of Islamic law clearly states that whenever the interest of people happens to be, it will be sanctioned by Gods law. What this means is that when a particular matter lacks a firm ruling, then what best serves the communitys interest is endorsed and sanctioned by Gods law. Islamic law looks to protect five major things in human life. They include mental discipline, faith, life, family, and property. Shelter for instance is not only one of the basic human rights a society is required to fulfill, but it is also basic to human existence. And since Muslims live in all types of societies, democratic, monarchial, theocratic, communist, socialist, they are forced to deal with their situations in line with Islamic law. This means they are not allowed to violate any of their principals except that which may be relaxed as an emergency, and attempting to meet their needs in order to live comfortably, which facilitates their productivity in society. Usury for instance is known to be the excess amount on the principal a borrower is required to pay to the lender in addition to the initial principal. The lender here is seen to exploit the borrowers needy situation by not only charging high interest but also by taking unjustified profit with no effort of his own. The lender here is seen to put the borrower plus his or her family at financial risk. In usury, it is the element of oppression and exploitation that Islam forbids according to Hassan (2006, 36). It is quite clear that many Muslims - especially those living in non-Muslim countries have given up on the idea of ever owning their own home (El-Gamal, 2006, 21). Many families prefer renting or leasing homes rather than engaging in a bank loan, which involves the taking or paying of interest (Mumisa, 2002, 3). Nonetheless, in the past few years, many banks have opened up mortgages that are compliant to the Islamic law and have created two common types of mortgages which are offered by banks, are the Murabahah and Ijara type of transaction (El-Gamal 2006, 22). The Murabahah transaction involves a bank purchasing a house and then reselling the house to a buyer at a fixed profit while the house is registered in the buyers name and heshe can pay the bank in installment, which are fixed. On the other hand, Ijarah transaction involves the bank purchasing a house and retaining ownership of it, while the buyer makes payment to the property until heshe completes and thats the time the person gains full ownership of the house (Mumisa 2002, 3). From this, two types of transactions, interest in not applicable to the property, yet the debate continues on whether or not such transactions are acceptable.

Ruling on mortgage by the various Sunni schools of thought
As it can be highlighted, each school of thought has its own ruling on mortgages. For instance, the Hanafi school of thought rules that a Muslim in a non-Muslim country may be allowed to enter into a mortgage with a bank. Nonetheless, it can be documented that it is illegal for a Muslim to pay interest but on issues concerning mortgages, the question about taking and giving interest is not be raised.  According to the Hanafi school of thought, the issue of interest in mortgages is mainly concerned on the pro and cons of the transaction since some of them have a real need of owning a house (El-Gamal 2006, 22).

The Maliki school of thought is dominant in Muslim areas of Africa and in France except Egypt (Mumisa 2002, 4). This school of thought do prohibits taking of mortgage, however, it stipulates that a Muslim living in a non-Muslim country can take mortgage but the interest rate should be low in such a way that it does not benefit the giver. Due to the fact that mortgage interest are unacceptable because one party gains at the others expense of the other, regardless to the price paid for the home, it usually prohibits most of the Muslims from taking a mortgage (El-Gamal2006, 20).  Under the shafii school of thought and Hanbali school of thought on mortgages, they also rules that Mortgages are illegal and hence a Muslim should not take it since they end up paying interest, which is Haram, and thus benefiting another person.  However, a mortgage can be taken if it does not involve paying interest and they have various arrangements concerning how a Muslim can take mortgage. Some form of flexibility however is offered to those Muslims living in non-Muslim lands. The fatawa for instance which is issued by Iraqs most prominent Shis cleric, Ayatullah Sistani,  is seen to facilitate the many and varied forms of conventional finance for these Muslims.

Ruling on mortgage by the various Shia schools of thought
Ahlstrom and Bruton (2009, 86) note that though not often, Muslims are guided by sharia based law irrespective of the fact that they might be living in a country or countries that are not governed by the law. There exist a number of different sects within Shia Islam. Most Shia muslims however are Twelvers and are known to follow jaafari legal school of thought which recognizes Quran as a source of law, but add the practices of the twelve imams to it. Shia interpret the various elements of the Koran in a very different way from their brothers the Sunnis. Regarding mortgages for instance, the Shia schools of thought states that no interest should be charged on loans. Hence, the banks can not charge interest on money loaned from the banks to others or pay interests on deposits directly and remain consistent with sharia law. In accordance to sharia law, mortgages for the purpose of buying homes could not in any case be allowed to exist since they involved paying of interest.

The Islamic character regarding Islamic home finance according to Visser (2009, 106) is founded in the absence of interest payments. Not all Muslims concur that their Islam faith requires them to eschew interest, but even among those that do believe, there are those who find interest based home finance acceptable for those Muslims living in non-Muslim nations. This is particularly fuqaha who follow the Hanafi madhhab. Both the conventional and Muslim financial institutions have been engaging in the development of sharia compliant home finance products in an attempt to respond to a wide and varied demand from various market segments. The products are available in different forms and they include murabaha, ijara wa iqtina, and musharaka mutanaqisah.

Murabaha
Under this form of finance, the home buyer starts by identifying a home, then he goes ahead to approach the financier. He then asks the financier to buy the house and promises to consequently buy it from him. The financier then not only buys the particular house but also resells it to the buyer and with a mark-up against payments that are periodic. Taking an example of the United Kingdom for instance, since 1998, the Ahli United Bank has been known to offer murabaha finance all along. The bank customers pay the bank a monthly installment, fixed, over a 10 to 15 year period of time. The profit margin which is included in the purchase price then takes the place of periodic interest payments, all under a conventional mortgage contract. Under such a conventional mortgage usually, the mark-up normally equals current value of future interest payments.  Murabaha type of home finance might seem straight forward at first sight but its suitability may be questioned because in the first place, it is a form of trade finance. The following points should be considered important for anyone considering to murabaha home finance. To begin with, what murabaha does is that it replaces interest with mark-up. Like all other Islamic forms of home finance, this puts it at a great disadvantage vis--vis the interest based conventional finance in circumstances where payment of interest on home finance for the purpose of income tax are deducted. Second, In comparison to conventional home finance where it requires only one transfer of property, murabaha requires two. This ultimately brings with it higher costs. Here the house if first and fore most bought by the financier who later resells it to the client, who is the ultimate buyer in this case. Stamp tax, public notary fees, and registry therefore end up being paid twice. As if that is not enough, the mark-up which is included in the price of that particular home facilitates a substantial increase of price at the second sale transaction and consequently a proportional stamp tax increase (Visser 2009, 107). One notable feature that makes murabaha finance seem unattractive to the financier is one it can not be securitized. Debts can only be treated at par or else riba al-fadl will inevitably be involved. Murabaha loans portfolio can therefore be said to be very illiquid.

Ijara wa iqtina
It is clear that murabaha has some attractive features. According to Visser, (2009, 109), it is not surprising that some financiers found themselves abandoning it and switching to other new forms. For instance, the first Islamic mortgage which was written in 1987 was a murabaha mortgage. Later however they moved to ijara wa iqtina, or lease purchase. What happens under ijara wa iqtina, a client first of all begins by finding and identifying a house, then goes ahead to ask the financier to buy it. The financier on the other hand sells the particular house to the client against delayed payments, probably at the same price, retaining the title however, until the last payment is made. At this stage, both parties enter into a lease agreement. This particular agreement however is separate from the purchase agreement as sharia requires for each individual transaction there be a separate contract. An agreement is made regarding the monthly payment and it includes both the amortization of the principal and the rent. The monthly lease payments are normally geared to an interest rate and are subsequently subjected to periodic revisions. The ijara wa iqtina phenomenon has however not gone well with some Muslim scholars. Visser (2009, 109) states that the scholars noted some dubious points about it. One, if the levels of rents are revised in annual terms, it brings about uncertainty which might consequently be labeled as gharar. Secondly, clients bear the risk of fall of price of the house. For instance, if the client is unable to pay the monthly installments and it requires for the house to be sold so as to facilitate repayment of the loan, he is subjected to suffer loss if the house prices happen to have fallen in the meantime. Ijara wa iqtina therefore is not a full sale nor is it a full rental, but a mixture not necessarily sharia compliant.

Analysis of the school of thought on mortgages
It is quite evident that all the four schools of thoughts have the similar views on mortgages since interest is paid on them. However, there are some views, which differ from one school to the other. For instance, the Hanafi and Maliki school of thought allow a Muslim living in non-Muslim country to take mortgages and they mainly address the pro and cons of mortgage and not the interest that is paid. Mortgage is allowed to them based on the advantage of taking it even though one ends up paying interest. Conversely, each school of thought has its ruling on mortgage. For instance, there the Hanbali advocate for an Islamic mortgage transaction, instead of loaning the buyer money to purchase the item. This is done by a bank buying the house itself from the seller and re-sells it to the buyer at a profit while allowing the buyer to pay the bank at a profit (Mumisa 2002, 3). Therefore, they perceive the profit to be different from interest. Another form of ruling that has been quite prominent with the Hanafi school of thought is the use of Murabaha whereby the house is registered under the name of the buyer from the beginning of the transaction (El-Gamal 2006, 22). In addition, the Maliki school of thought usually suggest an approach called Ijara wa Iqtina, which is similar to real estate leasing (El-Gamal, 21). In conclusion, it is evident that the four schools of thought have different ruling on mortgage and this is mainly based on the issue of paying interest, which is illegal in Islam.

According to El-Gamal (2006, 19), Ayatullah Sistani for instance allowed the deposit of fund with banks and collection of interest thereof, in the name of permissibility of interest charging to non-Muslims in these lands.

In addition to this, he went ahead and allowed Muslims to take mortgage loans from non-Islamic banks. This he did even knowing at the back of his mind that they will be submitted to paying principal plus interest, so long as they do not do it with the intention of borrowing in iqtirad classical sense. In a similar case, Sunni jurist, Yusuf Al-Qaradawi issued a fatwa which allowed Muslims living in North America to finance their homes purchases by use of conventional mortgages. This ruling he based on three considerations (1) Invoking the rule of necessity, (2) Abu Hanifas opinion that permitted the dealing with riba in non-Muslim nations, and (3) determination that the mortgagor is the key beneficiary from the mortgage home financing. For Muslims living in Muslim nations however, the rules are much stricter. Within this context, Sistani is seen to revert to Sharias alternatives which have been quite popular in Sunni majority Islamic nations. He for instance forbids borrowing from both public and private banks which have stipulated conditions of paying interest. This he characterized as forbidden riba.

In Saudi Arabia for instance, in the year 1981, the general council committee instructed all notaries public and qadis which were acting as notaries in small towns not to accept any form of mortgages that were being used to secure loans by commercial banks. This ruling had a significantly large impact as it prevented the use of bank mortgages. This order was prompted on notaries asking the council to relieve them of these particular actions which they were quite sure implicated them in usury which sharia prohibited, referring to the prophets hadith condemning the usurious loan writer.

In a previous order, the councils permanent committee required that whenever a notary was sure that a particular transaction he was being required to register involved the paying of interest, he was not to ahead and register it. That particular order was simply a specific implementation of the existing law, as it is against fiqh facilitating usury, and more to it under the regulations, a notary is expected to register acts on condition they are in agreement with the Hanbali School and are at the same time in proper sharia form. In its 1981 order however, the council took the matter to yet another step when it made a factual finding about commercial bank mortgages, that it had been established to the Supreme Judicial Councils body that the loans that were being granted by commercial banks were usuries, according to Vogel (2000, 113).

Musharaka mutanaqisah
In this particular case, a financier and a home buyer own a home jointly and as time go by the financiers share continuously diminish while on the other hand the buyers share increases. Musharaka mutanaqisah in most cases is combined with ijara. A client can for instance lease the financiers share in the property and then agree to buy the same property but over a period of about 30 years. In most cases, the client buys the home from the vendor as the agent of the financier and then directly registers it into their own name. In both the ijara and murabaha cases, the Muslim legal requirement stating that interest should be paid is met. The effect however is the same as a mortgage that bears interest where individuals over time buy their homes and the bank receives extra payment for this risk. As the influence and wealth of Muslims spread in the future, there will be an inevitable increase for businesses allowing their followers to operate in international business while at the same time assisting them, most importantly, to meet the requirements of their faith.

Among the different types of mortgages discussed, Murabaha is apparent is most appropriate as even most jurists in Islamic law seem to agree on its permissibility. They base their judgment on the Quran principles of trading custom and Shariah which not only encourage people to sell and buy goods at profit but also permit trading without interest.

Religious intolerance is not something that people havent been hearing. It has been in the past and has grown strong with time now in the present. Not one but many regions in the world experience this in the name of saving their beliefs. Which is quit sad to hear, quit ironic in fact, because these so called religious people involving in such an act hail from lives that read holy books which constantly tell them about loving one an other.

India, having its forever tag   unity in diversity by its side, is something most of them wouldnt now agree with.

 The conflict between Hindus and Muslims has a complex history which goes way back in 711 that has said to have begun with the Jihad of the Umayyad Caliphate in Sindh. Hindus were persecuted and temples had been destroyed at the time of Islamic expansion during medieval times. Due to the tension, India has committed itself to secularism since independence 1947

Secularism could not help, when some of the Hindus have burned down the mosque of the 16th century to build a temple in its place, this act has triggered the outburst of riots. Both have always have had issues but none wanted to call for peace. Instead they went out setting the trains on fire and the attack on swaminarayan temple which was recent on September 24th 2002, getting 30 people killed, by murdering them is what has happened.

These clashes which are never ending are being carried on to generations, where little minds are spoiled but filling them with vain hatred towards the other religion. Not to forget that every time these riots take place, irrespective to size, it always the innocent people who are the victims. And this in turn creates a whole new bunch of the ones who would willingly join in dissipation. The amount of trauma built in the people after watching their loved ones die in such cruel way would always be the main reason for creating such an impact. So there goes, people that were once away from the fritters will now associate and take part in riots. So there is no scope of the clashes to end but infact they are raising to the heights with time. And no boring speech or a peace act performed by the government is of help.

Cause of discrimination and Violence
The true cause may not be described appropriately. But it mainly is because of the religious differences, ethnic feuds and the economic differences. Political influence can also be to some extent. It would have been easier if the cause was known and treated. But now violence is more like an age old trend, the actual cause had been forgotten and people are busy in creating a disturbance and killing other people without any remorse in them. Media has its affect it in many ways supports what it has to support and fails to show the truth. Of course, the media having its own personal influence would always want to show the good side of its team that it is supporting. The fact is nothing is fair and right, if the world would  have taken a firm stand and what is right and stuck to it, their would have been enough security, people would have left their kids out freely to go play and not fear of them reaching home safe. Government might have tried to calm down place, since nothing was changing, it let itself get used to everything and made clear to civilians to get used to it as well. So where can a common man go, what can a common man say when everyone one knows that he is not going to be heard. Where is the security Who should one blame The manipulated, the deceased, the traumatized, the wounded, the lost and the mentally disturbed ones, all have lost their faith and feel that there is nothing that they can do. So this builds them to someone having their past going in their minds constantly and wanting to get out of it knowing there is no way. So revenge might seem the perfect path to most of the victims, hence they choose.

It doesnt end here, the anti Christian violence, incited by religious extremists, has taken the form of killing of Christians and burning of churches in the tribal regions of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa. The burning of an Australian missionary, Graham Staines, and his two children in Orissa was one in the series of incidents of religious violence that have, of late, afflicted the Indian society. Its not between two particularly religions but is against the religions and the regions that these chauvinists are going in the name of Holy war (jihad). Even now a commoner experiences these revolts showing up from nowhere without a reason.

A Religious war within the same religion is another same thing, where the Muslims opting for Christianity are killed for the conversion. When one has a freedom to follow any particular faith that they convicted to, then why is there a need for killings. Its just the way one has grow oneself into, and to expect a drastic change from it does seem quit impossible

Efforts made to create peace
Maintaining peace and order amongst the diverse communities has always been a difficult order. Yet some efforts have been made to suppress the angry between the Hindu and Muslim clash goes way back, promoting a two-nation theory and creating a partition, India and Pakistan, as it seemed virtually impossible for them both to live together in one nation. But it should be noted that in the period leading up to partition, many (if not most) religious riots were actively instigated by British authorities who bribed goon squads associated with the Muslim League to achieve that aim.  From a propaganda point of view, such riots were essential to create the impression that Hindus and Muslims simply couldnt live together. But riots were also triggered to either distract attention from the growing freedom movement.

.But the solution is here is not a partition and out casting, India proclaims to be a diverse nation and yes one can agree with such diversity, it tends to fall into the pits of turbulence amongst the communities. In the past many acts were done but nothing has swept away the hatred towards one and another. And outburst appears pretty often.

And now the government cannot be blamed for its ignorance, since one cannot expect when these revolts can start. It tries its best to stop when come out in open. But it does make an effort. A little more precautionary measures can be taken, now that it is quite evident that the riots can take place at anytime

The solution is to promote awareness positive peace building and reconciliation role religion has played in many conflict situations. Interfaith dialogue would be beneficial at all levels of religious hierarchies and across all segments of religious communities. Where silence and misunderstanding are all too common, learning about other religions would be a powerful step forward. Being educated about other religions does not mean conversion but may facilitate understanding and respect for other faiths. Communicating in a spirit of humility and engaging in self-criticism would also be helpful.

Apple shares continue to soar, and enthusiasm over the iPad remains untempered, despite reports of units languishing on store shelves following what was expected to be a sellout first weekend. Tablet PCs in general are expected to do well this year, at the expense of netbooks and e-book readers. One question is whether the iPad is just for Apple fans or is likely to bring more customers into the companys fold.

Going up against Apple (Nasdaq AAPL) must be akin to facing heavyweight champion Joe Lewis in the ring -- you get hit with so many blows so fast that your best option is to lie down.

Perhaps thats what Apples competitors feel like this week. While theyre still reeling from last Saturdays iPads launch, Cupertino has announced plans to offer select guests a sneak peek at the next generation of the iPhone operating system this Thursday.

Sales of the iPad had analysts rushing to revise their estimates for Apple upwards Thursdays show-and-tell might spark yet another round of optimism.

Joy to the iPad World

Analysts were burbling happily over their calculations when Apple began selling the iPad Saturday. About 300,000 iPads were sold on the first day by Apples count -- far fewer than expected -- but analysts remained unshaken in their faith.

Pointing out that the sales figures were for Saturday only and that many Apple and Best Buy (NYSE BBY) stores were closed on Easter Sunday, Brian Marshall, an analyst at Broadpoint AmTech, told MacNewsWorld that people likely would have snapped up another 200,000 or so iPads if sales had continued at a normal pace through the weekend.

I still think my estimate that four million iPads sold in calendar year 2010 is conservative, Marshall said.

The attractiveness of the iPad lies in its media and content capabilities, he told investors.

Content available for the iPad includes e-books, magazines and newspapers from most major publishers text books apps and games more than 8,500 movies and more than 55,000 TV episodes more than 12 million songs and upwards of 10,000 music videos.

Wall Street raised price targets for Apple shares on Monday based on high hopes for iPad sales. Mark Moskowitz of J.P. Morgan raised his estimate from US240 to 305, while Shaw Wu of Kaufman Bros. pumped his up from 253 to 295. Gene Munster of Piper Jaffray was more cautious, increasing his estimate marginally from 284 to 289.

Broadpoint Amtechs Marshall, Needhams Charlie Wolf, and Thomas Weisel partners Doug Reid all pegged Apples share price at 280.
A Cautionary Note

Which of these price points should investors trust Hard to tell -- but its wise not to get carried away.

Some analysts did get caught up in the iPad frenzy, notably Piper Jaffrays Munster, who predicted on Saturday that iPad sales would hit the 700,000 mark. Others pegged their target at between 500,000 and 600,000 units.

After Apple released its figures, Munster explained that hed overestimated the online pre-orders, and cut his 2010 iPad sales estimate from 5.6 million to 4.3 million.

One reason early estimates may have been off is that Apple initially did not require customers to provide credit card numbers when pre-ordering an iPad online and only began asking for them as the delivery date loomed.

That could have been a slip, which would be a first for a company thats so attentive to detail as Apple is.

Alternatively, it might have been a great marketing ploy. People would feel free not to follow through on pre-orders if they didnt have to provide their credit card numbers up front, and there would be no way to gauge the number who would fail to follow through with their pre-orders, so Apples figures quite possibly looked better than they would have if the company had insisted that people seal their deals with credit card numbers.

Of course, Apples pre-ordering methods were no secret, so analysts should have taken abandoned pre-orders into account.
Tales From the iPad Dark Side

More facts that could be troubling to investors are emerging.

For one thing, its not clear how many of the 300,000 iPads Apple claims to have sold on Saturday actually went to buyers.

Some of them went to channels, and Best Buy stores still appear to have quite a bit of inventory that likely contributed to that 300,000 figure.

Another possible problem is that many of those who bought the iPad on Saturday already own other Mac devices like MacBooks and iPhones. In other words, they were hard-core Apple fans.

What investors want to look for is the number of iPad buyers who didnt already own other Apple devices. If the iPad draws a significant number of new customers to Apple, then well have a better indication that it will really be a hit.

A separate but related issue is that of competition HP (NYSE HPQ) is flaunting its upcoming Slate, and a slew of other tablets will hit the market soon.

Heres another caveat The design of the iPad might cost it sales. Apple has engineered it to sit perfectly between the iPhone and the MacBook, Chris Hazelton, a research director at the 451 Group, pointed out.

That will make it very hard for people to buy an iPad in place of either Apple product, he told MacNewsWorld.
Happiness Is a Warm iPad

Those cautionary issues aside, its only fair to say that the universe of Apple fans is quite large and will account for hefty sales all on its own. Millions of iPhones and Apple computers have been sold, after all, and many of their owners might want an iPad.

Perhaps that is why DisplaySearch predicts that the iPad will lead tablet PC sales beyond the five million mark in 2010. Overall, tablet PCs will steal market share from netbooks and e-book readers, the company said.

The sales potential for the iPad certainly exists, said Chris Connery, vice president of market research for PC and IT products at DisplaySearch.

We showed almost 34 million netbooks shipping in 2009, and Steve Jobs likes to compare the iPad against netbooks, Connery told MacNewsWorld. If a lot of people get on the iPad bandwagon and say the iPad has all the features they want in a netbook product, that will eat into this category, which we call the mini-notebook category.
Its the Apps, Folks

Wont MacBooks and iPhones suppress iPad sales Not if developers create apps for the iPad, the 451 Groups Hazelton said.

It will be up to third-party developers to bring real value to the iPad, he explained.

Those third-party developers got a huge boost last week, when venture capitalists Kleiner Perkins Caufield  Byers (KPCB) doubled its iFund to 200 million to encourage the development of mobile apps for the iPad and other Apple products.

The company also announced that iFund-supported developers are working on more than 20 apps for the iPad, and said the iPad will lead the next wave of innovation in mobile computing. The iPad will target the entertainment, communications, social networking, commerce, healthcare and education fields.

We expect all ventures to have an iPad strategy, KPCB partner John Doerr said.

There are about 3,100 apps for the iPad, of which more than 2,500 are paid apps, Mobclix spokesperson Colleen Wickwire told MacNewsWorld.

More apps are on the way, said Peter Farago, vice president of marketing for Flurry.

Flurry has seen a significant spike in developer support for the iPad since Apple unveiled the device in late January, he told MacNewsWorld.

What about Android phones, which are threatening the iPhone Not to worry.

App development is growing for both the iPhone and iPad and for Android, Farago said, but its growing faster for Apple than for Google.
The iPad as a Business Device

While consumer adoption is a good thing, the real money is to be made in the enterprise field, which is why Apple has been trying hard to get its computers and iPhones into the hands of business users.

The iPad may be embraced by businesses. Companies that have hopped onto the cloud computing bandwagon will be more likely to use the iPad because of its strong browsing capabilities, the 451 Groups Hazelton said.

Like current iPhones, the iPad can be managed by IT using Microsoft (Nasdaq MSFT) Exchange and Apples iPhone Configuration tool, he pointed out. This means that some companies may allow employees to use the iPad since it can be remotely wiped if lost or stolen, and IT can enforce the use of password protection with the device.

The iPad will likely be an employee-owned device that will be used in the office and at home, in keeping with the trend toward such devices that is gaining ground in the enterprise marketplace, Hazelton said.
Looking to Apples Q2 Report

Any time a company is in step with ongoing trends, especially if theyre expected to gain strength -- as the trends toward cloud computing and employee-owned devices are -- its likely to remain in good shape.

Apples second-quarter financial report is due April 20, and its expected to be a good one.

We believe Apples second quarter, which ended in March, was very strong, Barclay Capitals Ben A. Reitzes wrote in a note to investors Monday. We expect a solid report from the company on April 20.

That solid report might get even stronger after Apples iPhone OS announcement this Thursday. This OS will likely go into the new iPhone that will be unveiled in June.

Apples share prices closed at yet another record high on Tuesday -- 239.54, up 1.05 from yesterdays closing.

Happy investing.

Disadvantages of Apple iPad  Read before You Decide to Buy New Apple iPad

Published Feb 15th, 2010  Author Crank Up
With the Apple fever swiping the world with the launch of the new iPad, there is another side to it as well. The amount of expectations that the manufacturers had brought in the minds of the people even before the release of the product in the beginning of this year is no longer being valued by the customers. The fact that the Apple iPad will replace the notebooks in the market does not seem to be a very practical statement considering its disadvantages.

Post the release of the new iPad in the market there are in fact more discussions on its disadvantages rather than its advantages. Following is the list of its known Apple iPad disadvantages in the few days of its release

- No presence of camera- Since the device does not come with a camera or a web cam, it is not possible not snap a picture or even use the video chat when chatting on your IM.

- No support for flash based applications. In other words you cannot view a website properly if it has a lot of flash based on plug-ins or is completely flash based website.

- Multi- tasking is difficult- It is merely not possible to have more than one application running at a time even for a brief span to send a quick mail or a message.

- The mini SIM slot that it comes with supports only the ATT network which means that you practically cannot go for another service provider or use it as a cell phone outside of the US.

- No support for SD card memory slots- This is one option that all Apple devices are expected to have and have not had till date.

- No built in USB slots- You could use a USB device only through an accessory which means that you have spend extra from your pocket after spending so much on your Apple iPad.

- Lack of high definition output in terms of both video and does not facilitate a comfortable reading of e-book.

Apart from the above mentioned disadvantages of apple iPad, there are also several inconveniences that the new Apple iPad has with respect to typing and battery backup and also requirement of iTunes to transfer or load any data into the iPad. This is just more of larger image of the iPod touch and does not all have the features that can replace a notebook or a mini PC.

iPad Will Impact E-Book Business  Everyones
By James Kendrick Mar. 30, 2010, 1130am CDT 8 Comments

The frenzy this week in anticipation of the arrival of hundreds of thousands of iPads is as expected. Countless individuals are checking the delivery status of their iPad(s) and wishing it would just get here already. There hype is in overdrive, and its close to the time where we see if its justified or not. One of the questions being asked is how Apple will impact the e-book game with its iBooks app and iBookstore. I believe both will have a huge impact, but not just for Apples own retail operation. The iPad will be the only universal e-book reader  able to buy and access paid content from all the major e-book sellers.

Amazon set the stage for iPad dominance in the e-book world with the Kindle for iPhone app. It allows customers to browse the Amazon Kindle bookstore, buy books and then read them on the phone. Those who use Kindle for iPhone praise the ability to read Kindle books without Kindle hardware. Its good for Amazon, as it is in the business of selling books, and even though Amazon would like to sell you a Kindle reader, its happy selling you books.

This is going to ramp up when the iPad hits consumer hands, and the Kindle for iPad app becomes available. The iPad will be a far better e-book reader than the iPhone, and even owners whove shied away from reading on the iPhone are going to give the iPad a try. They will discover that the iPad is a very good e-book reader, and theyll happily buy Kindle books for the iPad.

The same is going to happen with Barnes  Noble, as it is in the same position as Amazon. Its reader app also allows iPhone owners to give e-book reading a try. BN is going to produce an iPad reader version, and I expect it will sell quite a few books on the slate. Thats good for iPad owners, and good for the bookseller too. The folks at Kobo will have an iPad reader like the others. Kobo is the operation running the online bookstore for Borders, and will power other bookstores too. Its iPad reader will support shopping for books along and reading them, too.

The bottom line is the iPad is going to have a tremendous impact on the e-book business, no matter what the iBookstore does. Dedicated e-book readers like the Kindle and Nook can only buy books from the sellers own store. Owners of the iPad will be able to shop at all of the major online e-book retailers. The iPad will be the only universal e-book reader that can handle paid content from just about anywhere, and that will be a game changer.

Allen Moon E-Business
How the iPad Will Change the Way You Do Business
Early reviews have been tepid, but Apples latest still demands attention from your business.
By Allen Moon      March 15, 2010

 On April 3, Apples long-awaited tablet computer, iPad, hits the streets. Despite the initial mixed reviews it received when it was introduced, there is no denying this new device will change the way you do web business.

Ill get to exactly how its going to do that in a moment. But first, lets take a quick look at the iPad, and its key features.

An Overgrown iPhone
When images of the iPad first came out, many observers called it an overgrown iPhone--an obvious comparison, because it looks so much like Apples popular smartphone, and shares so many of its capabilities. Like the iPhone, the iPad allows its users to send and receive e-mail, surf the Web, play music and videos, store photos, and download utilities and games from the iTunes App Store.

It also allows user to read eBooks via a reader built into the device -- making it a direct competitor to Amazon Kindle and other e-reading devices on the market with far fewer bells and whistles. However, the iPad is being marketed as more than just a tool for consuming online content. Apple has revamped its iWork suite of applications to work on the iPad as well as standard Mac notebook and desktop computers. You can use Keynote to create multimedia presentations, Pages to create word processing documents, and Numbers to create spreadsheets. And you get to do all this via the same simple touch-screen interface that iPod Touch and iPhone users love so much.

But Whos Going to Buy it
When Apple introduced the iPad, a lot of tech geeks were disappointed. The iPad didnt have a camera, and it couldnt make phone calls--two big iPhone features. And it doesnt support any sort of Flash-based programming, which puts off many designers and programmers.

But when you consider what the iPad does do, it soon becomes clear that the device just isnt meant for hardcore tech geeks. The iPad target audience is clearly people who spend most of their time on their computer doing leisure-type activities, including browsing the web, reading books, watching movies, consuming online content and interacting on social networking sites.

More specifically, the iPad is going to hold huge appeal for
People who dont like computers The iPads touch-screen interface is exceptionally easy to use. Anyone who has ever got lost moving from program to program on their computer is going to love Apples new tablet. Key demographics fitting this description include middle-aged people and senior citizens who enjoy e-mailing friends and family, surfing the web, watching videos, and sharing photos--but hate all the hassles associated with a regular computer.

People who travel The iPad is a smaller, more lightweight alternative to a traditional laptop--which makes it ultra-portable. This ensures that people will take their iPad to places you normally wouldnt imagine taking a laptop. Imagine being in a restaurant with hungry kids--kids growing restless and fidgety as they wait for their meals. Why not distract them--and save your fellow diners some frustration--with a movie or game on your iPad

Students Kids are used to lugging around backpacks crammed full of heavy, expensive textbooks--textbooks that are used for one course or semester, and then never opened again. As more textbooks get converted into an iPad-friendly format, students will flock to the Apple Store to purchase this tablet in droves.

So What Does This Mean for you
Even if you have no interest in ever buying an iPad yourself, you need to pay attention to how Apple develops and markets this device.

As the iPad and other tablet computers become more popular over the next few years, the amount of time people spend consuming online content is going to explode. If you want your internet marketing to take advantage of this emerging trend, then youll make sure your website provides them with the kind of appealing content theyre looking for.

Make sure your site has a blog that features regularly updated articles your target audience will find useful and entertaining. You can even create videos to satisfy their desire for multimedia content. And as your business grows, plan to include more interactive social media features on your site. These features are the most effective way to encourage your users to pursue an ongoing relationship with you and your other customers, and form a community around your business.

Finally, consider offering e-books. Theyre easy to produce--you can hire writers and designers to create professional-looking eBooks for you, or do it yourself. And they fit into all kinds of objectives
Main product Great if youve got an info-heavy site, and theyre almost 100 percent profit once youve paid for the initial production.

New stream of revenue You can add e-books to your site to complement what you already offer. Theyre a good upsell or standalone product.

Opt-in incentive Theyre cheap to produce so you can offer them free.

Sales tool Use them as an online sales rep, to demonstrate the value of your product. eBooks can contain text, video, audio, graphics--the whole multimedia deal.

As more people use devices like the iPad to access information online, e-books are going to become increasingly popular and widely used. Even now, the demand for good books to read via electronic reader outweighs the supply. If you want to take advantage of this new electronic information gold rush, the time to act is now. So what will you do to make your business more iPad-friendly

Visiting St. Louis Catholic Church
I belong to the Jewish tradition.  Experiencing the Catholic Christian tradition was rather awkward for me, but the experience was worthwhile.  I understand that there are different strokes for different folks, and while Catholic practices are contrary to my familys beliefs, I know that other people have their own personal preferences just as various types of people like different food, cars, housing or partners.  I visited the St.Louis Catholic Church and although I was a bit uncomfortable, it was also enlightening. After visiting the church, observing the images or art surrounding it, understanding the symbolism that it represented, practicing the rituals and blending in with the worshippers, I think that I would rather go to another worship center next time where people are more free, logical and sensible.

Entering the church grounds is like traveling to another world.  It is like visiting a museum of modern art.  The building itself resembles a 20th-century U.F.O. or flying saucer.  Being abducted by God or by friendly angelic aliens and flying to heaven seems to be the theme of this church.  There are also a few smaller building structures, like mini space-craft flying out of the giant mother ship.  Truly, the church grounds surrounding the space craft are heavenly.  It is well-carpeted with mowed green grass, decorated by palm trees all over, and embraced by tall bushy trees reaching for the sky.  There is also a paved or bricked plaza for several people to roam around on.  But what probably struck me was a metallic modern-art sculpture of a naked Jesus Christ, with wire poles sticking out of his head, perhaps emulating a halo or a crown of thorns, while he raised both arms to heaven in a dramatic plea for freedom from agony and pain.  I am not used to such sculptures in a place of worship. It is a bit disturbing for me, perhaps because it seems to be sadistic.  But I do know that Catholics find peace with it since it represents the pain of bearing the sins of mankind, like a sacrificial lamb waiting for the slaughter.  There is also a mini waterfall or fountain, symbolizing Jesus Christ as the Living Water that people need.

The interior of the church building is also well-decorated.  A stained-glass image of Jesus Christ, naked and nailed to an invisible cross, while two naked criminals join with him to his left and right, adorn the church.  This depicts the two people who were crucified along with Jesus.  One of them cursed Jesus and challenged him to free himself if he were really the Son of God.  But the other one was more compassionate and asked Jesus to remember him when he ascends back to heaven.  Jesus gave the man his guarantee of salvation.  There are, of course, other stained glass windows in the church depicting other scenes.  All of them washed in various colors as rays of sunlight pass through them like rainbows.

Some of the doors are also sculpted with images.  They are large doors with round, bronze-like beveled or embossed scenes carved into the door. One door has the image of Jesus with a haloed woman, dressed in Middle-Eastern traditional attire, likely to be the Virgin Mary, below him. The other doors show other scenes from the Christian Bible.

There is also a table inside with images surrounding it.  A wooden crucifix with a naked ivory-colored statue of Jesus hanging from it is displayed above the table.  Again, I find such an image disturbing, although I also understand that it is an important idol of worship for Catholic Christians.  The table itself is covered with a white table cloth and adorned with flowers and green leafy plants.  To its upper left side, a picture of the Virgin Mary with the baby Jesus hangs on the wall.  She is dressed in red and blue, while the baby Jesus is naked, with a small object covering his genitals. What is puzzling to me is why such pornographic images are displayed and even worshipped in a place that is supposed to be holy.  Perhaps these images explain the sex scandals rocking the Catholic Church recently.  Hundreds of Catholics are complaining about child molestation and sexual abuse by priests, and these images seem to confirm its reality.  Allegations of church-based sex abuse are increasing across Europe, says CNN several days ago, including in Austria, Germany, the Netherlands, Spain and Switzerland. New abuse allegations have surfaced in Brazil, home of the worlds largest Catholic population.

Looking up the churchs ceiling though is quite relaxing.  The circular ceiling is adorned with what seems like authentic wooden beams and panels.  Of course, it is not very environmentally-friendly since many trees were lost to make the church more beautiful, but it is a very aesthetic addition to the churchs architecture, specially when you want to move your eyes away from the images in the church.  The larger cross though behind the main altar has no naked image of Jesus, and that is also quite refreshing.

The mass begins and the priest enters wearing a vestment that makes him appear like Jesus.  He is also wearing a stole, a long piece of cloth about four inches wide draped around the neck, which is a symbol of his priestly office, giving him the right, authority and jurisdiction to perform ceremonies and sacraments in behalf of the church.  The worshippers or the people around though are dressed in normal formal attire.

The worshippers sit on wooden benches called pews.  There are also kneeling contraptions with cushions behind the benches so that people dont have to kneel on the floor and bruise their knees.
There is also an altar that symbolizes the Lords Supper.  The linen corporal is spread over the altar, and bread and a chalice of wine are placed on top of it.  The altar functions as both altar of sacrifice and banquet table.  As St. Thomas Aquinas says, it is a paschal banquet in which Christ is eaten, the heart is filled with grace, and a pledge of future glory given to us  (cited in Second Vatican Council 1963).  This is where another controversial event takes place.  It is where the priest eats the body of Jesus and drinks his blood with a chalice.  The act is a representation of Jesus last supper with his disciples before he was crucified.  To remember him after his death, he asked his disciples to eat bread that symbolizes his body and to drink wine that represents his blood.  It reminds me of a Roman Catholic directors (Mel Gibson) movies.  Gibson directed the Passion of Christ, which is a depiction of Jesus suffering recently celebrated during the Lenten season and climaxing on Easter Sunday.  Some say it is anti-Semitic, but when I see the sacrificial altar, it reminds me of his other movie, Apocalypto, which portrays human sacrifice in ancient Mayan Mexico.  The Mayan priest also had a sacrificial table where he would tear out a human sacrifices heart, eating its flesh and drinking its blood.  Scholars point out the similarities of this cannibalistic ritual with Catholic Holy Communion and its pacified form using Iranian Mithraism (Beck 2000).  The ancient Egyptians also practiced similar rituals as mentioned in the Cannibal Hymn because the bodies of the gods are said to be full of magic (cited in Faulkner 1924).  I feel very uncomfortable with the idea of cannibalism practiced in a religious ritual, so when Holy Communion started later, I did not partake of the host or sacramental bread that the Priest offered to the worshippers.  Perhaps Moses felt the same way.  Thats one of the reasons why he probably left Egypt.

Then when the Catholic priest arrives at his chair, he motions the sign of the cross with his hands.  In the name of the Father, he says, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit.  The people then respond with, Amen.  Catholics believe in the trinity.  They say that God is in three forms.  The Father is YHVH (Yahweh or Jehovah as Catholics call Him), their Old Testament God.  The Son is Jesus Christ, and the Holy Spirit is Gods mysterious force.  The three are one, and this is a Catholic mystery.  Whenever Catholics also initiate prayers, they also motion the sign of the cross and repeat the same statements that go with it.  Throughout the mass the priest may also say something and the people respond mechanically with an answer.

There are also Scripture readings, about three, recited in the mass.  The first reading is from the Biblical Old Testament.  Then the people answer with a Responsorial Psalm.  The second reading is from the New Testament, and the final reading is a proclamation from the Gospel.  Then the people respond, Praise to you, Lord Jesus Christ.

Then the homily or sermon is given followed by the Apostles Creed.  Easter Sunday is supposedly the day when Jesus physically resurrects from the dead.  While Catholics believe that this event actually took place, there is also symbolism and a message in Christs resurrection.  When the peoples sins are buried, the people become new again.

Then the Apostles Creed is recited.  Everyone says the following in unison to express their confidence and belief in the Roman Catholic faith

I believe in God, the Father almighty, creator of heaven and earth.

I believe in Jesus Christ, his only Son, our Lord.

He was conceived by the power of the Holy Spirit and born of the Virgin

Mary.

He suffered under Pontius Pilate, was crucified, died, and was buried.

He descended into dead. On the third day he rose again.

He ascended into heaven and is seated at the right hand of the Father.

He will come again to judge the living and the dead.

I believe in the Holy Spirit,

the holy catholic Church, the communion of saints,

the forgiveness of sins,

the resurrection of the body,

and life everlasting.

Amen.

Finally, the Liturgy of the Word ends with Prayers of the Faithful.  Some intentions for prayer are expressed and the people respond with, Lord hear our prayer.  

The Liturgy of the Eucharist, with Holy Communion, then begins.  The priest prepares the bread and wine on the altar by mixing the wine with some water, like a bar tender.  He then says a silent prayer over each individually.  The priest washes his hands afterwards which is a symbol for purification.  The priest says, Pray, brethren, that our sacrifice may be acceptable to God, the almighty Father.  And the people respond, May the Lord accept the sacrifice at your hands, for the praise and glory of his name, for our good, and the good of all his Church.  The priest then says, Lift up your hearts.  And the people respond, We lift them up to the Lord.  Then the Priest says, Let us give thanks to the Lord, our God.  And the congregation answers, It is right to give him thanks and praise.  The Sanctus is then recited Holy, Holy, Holy Lord God of power and might, Heaven and Earth are full of your glory, Hosanna in the Highest, Blessed is he who comes in the name of the Lord, Hosanna in the Highest. And the people kneel down.  Unfortunately, if you are not used to all the standing, sitting, kneeling and recitations, you will tend to be out-of-sync, which is what happened to me.  But for worshippers who are used to the ritual, they follow everything very fluidly.

There are many other recitations and responses in a Catholic mass.  What I mentioned is just a sample of what I think is very mechanical and monotonous.  Perhaps, it is just my personal preference, but I do not like this style of worship.  Standing, sitting, kneeling and reciting memorized lines are not for me.  I dont enjoy doing it, but for Catholics, it is an act of worship.

In the end, I find it difficult to be a Catholic.  If my parents and family were Catholic, I would probably convert to another religion.  This is probably why many Catholics around the world are leaving their faith.  Indeed, many Catholics around the world were forced into it by Spanish and Portuguese conquistadors.  It may not have much of a future, but at least I learned a little from it.